Reductive photocatalysis and smart inks

Semiconductor-sensitised photocatalysis is a well-established and growing area of research, innovation and commercialisation; the latter being mostly limited to the use of TiO2 as the semiconductor. Most of the work on semiconductor photocatalytic systems uses oxygen as the electron acceptor and explores a wide range of electron donors; such systems can be considered to be examples of oxidative photocatalysis, OP. OP underpins most current examples of commercial self-cleaning materials, such as: glass, tiles, concrete, paint and fabrics. OP, and its myriad of applications, have been reviewed extensively over the years both in this journal and elsewhere. However, the ability of TiO2, and other semiconductor sensitisers, to promote reductive photocatalysis, RP, especially of dyes, is significant and, although less well-known, is of growing importance. In such systems, the source of the electrons is some easily oxidised species, such as glycerol. One recent, significant example of a RP process is with respect to photocatalyst activity indicator inks. paiis, which provide a measure of the activity of a photocatalytic film under test via the rate of change of colour of the dye in the ink coating due to irreversible RP. In contrast, by incorporating the semiconductor sensitiser in the ink, rather than outside it, it is possible to create an effective UV dosimeter, based on RP, which can be used as a sun-burn warning indicator. In the above examples the dye is reduced irreversibly, but when the photocatalyst in an ink is used to reversibly photoreduce a dye, a novel, colourimetric oxygen-sensitive indicator ink can be created, which has commercial potential in the food packaging industry. Finally, if no dye is present in the ink, and the semiconductor photocatalyst-loaded ink film coats an easily reduced substrate, such as a metal oxide film, then it can be used to reduce the latter and so, for example, clean up tarnished steel. The above are examples of smart inks, i.e. inks that are active and provide either dynamic information (such as UV dose or O2 level) or a useful function (such as tarnish removal), and all work via a RP process and are reviewed here

UV dosimetry for solar water disinfection (SODIS) carried out in different plastic bottles and bags

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a well-established inexpensive means of water disinfection in developing countries, but lacks an indicator to illustrate its end-point. A study of the solar UV dosage required for SODIS, in order to achieve a bacteria concentration below the detection limit for: Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp. and Clostridium perfringens, in water in PET bottles, PE and PE/EVA bags showed disinfection to be most efficient in PE bags, with a solar UV (290–385 nm) dose of 389 kJ m−2 required. In parallel to the disinfection experiments, a range of polyoxometalate, semiconductor photocatalysis and photodegradable dye-based solar UV dosimeter indicators were tested under the same solar UV irradiation conditions. All three types of dosimeter produced indicators that largely and significantly change colour upon exposure to 389 kJ m−2 solar UV; further indicators are reported which change colour at higher doses and hence would be suitable for the less efficient SODIS containers tested. All indicators tested were robust, easy to use and inexpensive so as not to add significantly to the attractive low cost of SODIS. Furthermore, whilst semiconductor photocatalyst and photodegradable dye based indicators are disposable, one-use systems, the polyoxometalate based indicators recover colour in the dark overnight, allowing them to be reused, and hence further decreasing the cost of using indicators during the implementation of the SODIS method.

Exposição de profissionais de saúde a radiações ionizantes : confiança dos profissionais nas leituras de dosimetria individual

Resumo - O avanço tecnológico e científico no campo da Medicina tem favorecido a aplicação das radiações ionizantes nas áreas da Medicina Nuclear, Radiologia, Radioterapia e noutras especialidades relacionadas com a medicina de intervenção, como a Cardiologia. As Organizações de Saúde, com profissionais com risco de exposição a radiações ionizantes, são responsáveis, legislativamente, por assegurar a sua vigilância. Certificando a observação controlada das doses de exposição, os profissionais são monitorizados com dosímetros individuais e submetidos a vigilância médica. As leituras de dosímetria individual destes profissionais, originam por vezes, nos próprios, desconfianças e incertezas quanto aos valores medidos. Objectivo: avaliar o grau de confiança dos profissionais de saúde, expostos a radiações ionizantes, no sistema de monitorização individual. Metodologia: estudo observacional do tipo analítico- transversal, por questionário. Amostra de 190 Técnicos de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica de Cardiopneumologia, Medicina Nuclear, Radiologia, Radioterapia, expostos a radiações ionizantes, que exercem a sua actividade profissional em hospitais do concelho de Lisboa. Resultados: 51,1% dos Técnicos de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica não confiam nas leituras dos dosímetros, não se determinou uma relação estatisticamente significativa entre essa confiança, o tipo de dosímetro e a empresa que realiza as leituras. A confiança é maior nos que exercem em Organizações de Saúde públicas. 40,2% das Organizações de Saúde apresentam plano de vigilância médica, constatando-se uma falta de conformidade entre os Técnicos de Diagnóstico e Terapêutica, nalguns hospitais, relativamente à existência desse plano no respectivo hospital. A margem de erro associado ao estudo é de 5,09%, com um nível de confiança de 95%. -----------Abstract - The technological and scientific advances in the field of medicine has encouraged the application of ionizing radiation with a considerable positive contribution in the areas of Nuclear Medicine, Radiology, Radiotherapy and other specialties related to medical intervention like Cardiology. The Health Organizations that arise the risk of occupational exposure to ionizing radiation and is their responsibility to ensure monitoring, according the law. To ensure the monitoring of controlled doses of exposure, the exposed works use an individual dosimeter and undergo medical supervision. The individual dosimetry readings of health-care professionals, is sometimes questionable for themselves, arising distrust and uncertainty about the values measured. Objective: evaluate the degree of confidence of health professionals, exposed to radiation, on the system of individual monitoring. Methods: Observational study of cross-type analysis by questionnaire. Sample of 190 of technologists of Cardiopneumology, Nuclear Medicine, Radiology, Radiotherapy, exposed to ionizing radiation, which work in hospitals on the region of Lisbon. Results: 51.1% of technologists does not rely on the readings of their dosimeters, and wasn’t determined a statistically significant relationship between this trust, the type of dosimeter and the company that makes the readings(s) of their(s) dosimeter(s). The confidence in the readings is higher in public Health Organizations. 40.2% of the Health Organizations have medical monitoring plan and there is a disagreement between technologists, in some hospitals, relatively to the existence of this plan in their hospital. It was estimated that the u

Exposição a radiações ionizantes em cirurgia ortopédica num hospital público de Lisboa.

RESUMO - A monitorização individual dos trabalhadores (dosimetria individual) é obrigatória (Decreto Regulamentar n.o 9/90, de 19 de Abril) para os profissionais de saúde que desempenham funções com risco de exposição à radiação X, quando classificados como categoria A. Apesar disso, a exposição a radiações ionizantes é frequentemente pouco, ou mesmo nada, valorizada pelos profissionais de saúde. O presente estudo, realizado no contexto de intervenções cirúrgicas de ortopedia, teve por objectivos: • avaliar a dose de radiação em diferentes zonas durante as cirurgias ortopédicas; • estimar a dose de exposição a radiações ionizantes dos profissionais de saúde, em função das suas posições, predominantemente adoptadas durante o acto cirúrgico; • sensibilizar os profissionais de saúde para a utilização correcta da dosimetria individual e para a adopção das medidas de protecção radiológica. A avaliação do risco foi efectuada através de: 1) medições preliminares com recurso a um fantoma colocado a 50 cm e a 100 cm do eixo central do feixe de radiação e em direcções de 45°, 90° e 135°; 2) medições durante uma cirurgia ortopédica em «localizações » correspondentes às gónadas, ao cristalino e às mãos dos profissionais de saúde intervenientes na cirurgia (ortopedistas, enfermeiros instrumentistas); 3) medições ao nível do topo da mesa (posição do anestesista) e ao nível do comando do equipamento emissor de raios X (técnico de radiologia); 4) determinação do tempo de utilização dos raios X durante as cirurgias ortopédicas; 5) cálculo da estimativa do número anual de cirurgias ortopédicas realizadas, com base nos registos existentes. Assumindo a não utilização de aventais plúmbeos os valores máximos medidos foram de 2,5 mSv/h (ao nível das gónadas), de 0,6 mSv/h ao nível do cristalino e de 1 mSv/ h ao nível das mãos dos ortopedistas e dos enfermeiros instrumentistas (que se situavam próximo do feixe de raios X, a 50 cm do feixe de radiação). A estimativa de exposição anual (dose equivalente) para os profissionais que operam junto ao feixe de radiação X foi de: • Ortopedistas — 20,63 a 68,75 mSv (gónadas), 4,95 a 16,50 mSv (cristalino) e 8,25 a 27,50 mSv (mãos); • Enfermeiros instrumentistas — 130,63 a 151,25 mSv (gónadas), 31,35 a 36,30 mSv (cristalino) e 52,25 a Os profissionais que ocupam posições mais afastadas do feixe (por exemplo: anestesistas) terão doses de radiação mais reduzidas, embora estas possam ainda ser importantes ao nível das gónadas na zona do topo da mesa (anestesista). Conclui-se que a exposição profissional em blocos operatórios pode implicar, em cirurgia ortopédica, a sujeição a níveis de exposição consideráveis, o que permite classificar estes profissionais de categoria A, justificando a utilização obrigatória (e correcta de acordo com as recomendações) da dosimetria individual e a adopção de medidas de protecção radiológica, tantas vezes negligenciadas.

Développement d'un nouveau critère pour déterminer les limites d'utilisation des détecteurs en dosimétrie non standard

Depuis quelques années, il y a un intérêt de la communauté en dosimétrie d'actualiser les protocoles de dosimétrie des faisceaux larges tels que le TG-51 (AAPM) et le TRS-398 (IAEA) aux champs non standard qui requièrent un facteur de correction additionnel. Or, ces facteurs de correction sont difficiles à déterminer précisément dans un temps acceptable. Pour les petits champs, ces facteurs augmentent rapidement avec la taille de champ tandis que pour les champs d'IMRT, les incertitudes de positionnement du détecteur rendent une correction cas par cas impraticable. Dans cette étude, un critère théorique basé sur la fonction de réponse dosimétrique des détecteurs est développé pour déterminer dans quelles situations les dosimètres peuvent être utilisés sans correction. Les réponses de quatre chambres à ionisation, d'une chambre liquide, d'un détecteur au diamant, d'une diode, d'un détecteur à l'alanine et d'un détecteur à scintillation sont caractérisées à 6 MV et 25 MV. Plusieurs stratégies sont également suggérées pour diminuer/éliminer les facteurs de correction telles que de rapporter la dose absorbée à un volume et de modifier les matériaux non sensibles du détecteur pour pallier l'effet de densité massique. Une nouvelle méthode de compensation de la densité basée sur une fonction de perturbation est présentée. Finalement, les résultats démontrent que le détecteur à scintillation peut mesurer les champs non standard utilisés en clinique avec une correction inférieure à 1%.

Verificación de los niveles de atenuación de dos tipos de protectores auditivos tipo copa en trabajadores de una empresa del sector Hidrocarburos. Barrancabermeja-Colombia 2013.

El presente estudio se realizó con el fin de verificar los niveles de atenuación de dos tipos de protectores auditivos tipo copa, bajo condiciones reales de operación en una empresa del sector hidrocarburos en Colombia. Esta verificación se llevó a cabo determinando las diferencias existentes entre los niveles de atenuación establecidos por el fabricante (NRR Teórico), los niveles de atenuación ajustados de acuerdo a la metodología propuesta por NIOSH (NRR Ajustado) y los niveles de atenuación obtenidos experimentalmente (NRR Experimental). El estudio se desarrolló sobre la evaluación de los niveles equivalentes de presión sonora, mediante dosimetrías de doble canal, valorando los niveles de ruido al interior y al exterior del pabellón auditivo de forma simultánea. Los valores obtenidos en las mediciones se ajustaron a los criterios establecidos en la norma ISO 11904 parte 1 considerando la estimación de niveles de inmisión sonora mediante técnica MIRE (Microphone In a Real Ear) corregidos a condiciones de campo libre. Los resultados obtenidos permitieron establecer diferencias significativas entre los niveles de atenuación teóricos, ajustados y experimentales, aspecto que brinda oportunidades de mejora cuando se trata de seleccionar y mantener elementos de protección personal auditiva como estrategia preventiva primaria en el propósito de la disminución de la probabilidad de ocurrencia de hipoacusia neurosensorial inducida por ruido en el lugar de trabajo.

Evaluation of noise levels experienced by medically fragile neonates during emergency helicopter transport

There was a concern medically fragile infants may be exposed to high noise levels during emergency helicopter transport. This study had been initiated in 2007. Data was collected using a Larson Davis noise dosimeter. The purpose of this study was to collect additional data to evaluate the noise exposure experienced by medically fragile neonates during emergency transport via helicopter inbound/outbound of St. Louis Children’s Hospital, St. Louis, MO. The results suggested neonates may be exposed to noise levels ranging 85 to 95 dBA during transport. These high noise exposures may pose a risk to hearing.

New mechanical samples positioning system for irradiations on a radial channel at nuclear research reactor in a full-power continuous operation

This paper describes a new mechanical samples positioning system that allows the safe placement and removal of biological samples for prolonged irradiation, in a nuclear reactor during full-power continuous operation. Also presented herein the materials of construction and operating principles. Additionally, this sample positioning system is compared with an existing pneumatic and automated transfer system, already available at the research reactors. The system consists of a mechanical arm with a claw, which can deliver the samples for irradiations without reactor shutdown. It was installed in the lEA-R1 research reactor at Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares (IPEN), Sao Paulo, Brazil, and for the past 5 years, the system has successfully operated and allowed the conducting of important experiments. As a result of its introduction, the facility has been in a position to positively respond to the increased demand in studies of biology, medicine, physics, engineering, detector/dosimeter calibrations, etc. It is one example of the appropriated technologies that save energy and resources. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Study of the gamma radiation response of watch glasses

Some dosimetric properties of watch glasses were studied applying the thermoluminescence technique. The watch glass samples were powdered, and the selected grains were mixed with Teflon (TM). The mixture was pressed and sintered to produce pellets of watch glass-Teflon (TM) composites. The glow curves of the pellets show two peaks at 130 and 195 degrees C. Reproducibility of TL response was estimated to have a maximum coefficient of variation of 4.0%. The dose-response curve is sublinear between 0.5 and 20.0kGy. The calibration curve is linear between 1.0Gy and 1.0kGy. The minimum detection limits were also determined. The gamma radiation dose response and the thermal stability of the materials were studied with the purpose to establish the best conditions of watch glasses for use in gamma radiation dosimetry. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

MRI study of radiation effect on Fricke gel solutions

The quality control optimization of medical processes that use ionizing radiation in the treatment of diseases like cancer is a key element for patient safety and success of treatment. The major medical application of radiation is radiotherapy, i.e. the delivery of dose levels to well-defined target tissues of a patient with the purpose of eliminating a disease. The need of an accurate tumour-edge definition with the purpose of preserving healthy surrounding tissue demands rigorous radiation treatment planning. Dosimetric methods are used for dose distribution mapping region of interest to assure that the prescribed dose and the irradiated region are correct. The Fricke gel (FXG) is the main dosimeter that supplies visualization of the three-dimensional (3D) dose distribution. In this work the dosimetric characteristics of the modified Fricke dosimeter produced at the Radiation Metrology Centre of the Institute of Energetic and Nuclear Research (IPEN) such as gel concentration dose response dependence, xylenol orange addition influence, dose response between 5 and 50Gy and signal stability were evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Using the same gel solution, breast simulators (phantoms) were shaped and absorbed dose distributions were imaged by MRI at the Nuclear Resonance Laboratory of the Physics Institute of Sao Paulo University. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

TL, OSL and ESR studies on beryllium oxide

Electron spin resonance (ESR) studies were carried out to identify the defect centres responsible for the thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) processes in BeO phosphor. Two defect centres were identified in irradiated BeO phosphor by ESR measurements, which were carried out at room temperature and these were assigned to an O(-) ion and Al(2+) centre. The O(-) ion (hole centre) correlates with the main 190 degrees C TL peak. The Al(2+) centre (electron centre), which acts as a recombination centre, also correlates to the 190 degrees C TL peak. A third centre, observed during thermal annealing studies, is assigned to an O(-) ion and is related to the high temperature TL at 317 degrees C. This centre also appears to be responsible for the observed OSL process in BeO phosphor. (c) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Infrared luminescence, thermoluminescence and defect centres in Er and Yb co-doped ZnAl(2)O(4) phosphor

Er and Yb co-doped ZnAl(2)O(4) phosphors were prepared by solution combustion synthesis and the identification of Er and Yb were done by energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) studies. A luminescence at 1.5 mu m, due to the (4)I(13/2) ->(4)I(15/2) transition, has been studied in the NIR region in Er and Yb co-doped ZnAl(2)O(4) phosphors upon 980 nm CW pumping. Er-doped ZnAl(2)O(4) exhibits two thermally stimulated luminescence (TSL) peaks around 174A degrees C and 483A degrees C, while Yb co-doped ZnAl(2)O(4) exhibits TSL peaks around 170A degrees C and 423A degrees C. Electron spin resonance (ESR) studies were carried out to identify defect centres responsible for TSL peaks observed in the phosphors. Room temperature ESR spectrum appears to be a superposition of two distinct centres. These centres are assigned to an O(-) ion and F(+) centre. O(-) ion appears to correlate with the 174A degrees C TSL peak and F(+) centre appears to relate with the high temperature TSL peak at 483A degrees C in ZnAl(2)O(4):Er phosphor.

Thermoluminescent and optical absorption properties of neodymium doped yttrium aluminoborate and yttrium calcium borate glasses

Neodymium doped yttrium aluminoborate and yttrium calcium borate glasses were prepared by the conventional melting-quenching technique with neodymium concentration varying from 0.10 to 1.0 mol%. The obtained glasses present a wide transparency in the UV-visible region (till 240 nm). The thermoluminescent (TL) emission of beta-irradiated samples was measured, showing a broad peak at similar to 240 degrees C with intensities related to the Nd(3+) content, for both glasses. Calcium borate glass samples are about one order of magnitude less luminescent than the aluminoborate glasses. Probably the presence of Ca(2+), instead of Al(3+) and Y(3+) in the matrix, inhibits the production of the intrinsic hole centers. connected to boron and oxygen, known in the literature to act as luminescent centers in TL emission of borate glasses. We suggest that Nd(3+) ions act as electron trapping centers in both glass matrices, as they modify the temperature of emission and the light intensity. Also, the Nd:YAIB glass can be used as a dosimeter in various applications, including radiotherapy. but the sensitivity of this material to neutron should be checked. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Dosimetric properties of UV irradiated calcium co-doped borate glass-ceramic

The thermoluminescence (TL) response of Dy and Li doped 20CaB(4)O(7)-80CaB(2)O(4) (Wt%) glass-ceramic irradiated with ultraviolet (UV) radiation was studied. In order to act as TL activator ions, the Dy and Li ions were included in the matrix during the melting process to increase its TL efficiency. A single crystalline CaB2O4 phase was present in the glass-ceramic as determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The glass-ceramic 20CaB(4)O(7)-80CaB(2)O(4):Dy,Li wt% (named 20CBO7:Dy,Li) is a newly prepared TL material. Its thermoluminescent dosimetric characteristics have shown a linear response under UV radiation exposure and a good TL signal reproducibility, thus proving to be a promising material for using as an ultraviolet radiation dosimeter. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Thermoluminescence of aluminophosphate glasses in the metaphosphate composition

Potassium aluminum phosphate (KAP) glasses in the system xKPO(3)-(100-x)AI(PO3)3 with x = 10, 30 and 50 mol% were prepared in the metaphosphate composition. The glasses were doped with MnO2 and their thermoluminescent (TL) response was investigated. Raman spectra showed that these glasses did not undergo structural changes with the substitution of manganese ions. The glass composition x = 50 mol% doped with 1.0 mol% of MnO2 presented the best TL response. The material displayed good sensitivity for gamma-rays, X-rays and UV light. The emission curves exhibited two TL peaks, one at a low temperature (similar to 150 degrees C) and the other at a high temperature (similar to 365 degrees C), whose positions were dependent on the type of exciting radiation applied. The results of the present study indicated that the high temperature peak is a good candidate for TL dosimetric investigations. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.