Behavioral and spatial analysis of extraterritorial movements in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

Abstract: Movements away from the natal or home territory are important to many ecological processes, including gene flow, population regulation, and disease epidemiology, yet quantitative data on these behaviors are lacking. Red foxes exhibit 2 periods of extraterritorial movements: when an individual disperses and when males search neighboring territories for extrapair copulations during the breeding season. Using radiotracking data collected at 5-min interfix intervals, we compared movement parameters, including distance moved, speed of movement, and turning angles, of dispersal and reproductive movements to those made during normal territorial movements; the instantaneous separation distances of dispersing and extraterritorial movements to the movements of resident adults; and the frequency of locations of 95%, 60%, and 30% harmonic mean isopleths of adult fox home territories to randomly generated fox movements. Foxes making reproductive movements traveled farther than when undertaking other types of movement, and dispersal movements were straighter. Reproductive and dispersal movements were faster than territorial movements and also differed in intensity of search and thoroughness. Foxes making dispersal movements avoided direct contact with territorial adults and moved through peripheral areas of territories. The converse was true for reproductive movements. Although similar in some basic characteristics, dispersal and reproductive movements are fundamentally different both behaviorally and spatially and are likely to have different ultimate purposes and contrasting effects on spatial processes such as disease transmission

Morphological and fecundity traits of Culex mosquitoes caught in gravid traps in urban and rural Berkshire, UK

Culex pipiens s.l. is one of the primary vectors of West Nile Virus in the USA and Continental Europe. The seasonal abundance and eco-behavioural characteristics of the typical form, Cx. pipiens pipiens, make it a key putative vector in Britain. Surveillance of Culex larvae and adults is essential to detect any changes to spatial and seasonal activity or morphological traits that may increase the risk of disease transmission. Here we report the use of the modified Reiter gravid box trap, which is commonly used in the USA but scarcely used in the UK, to assess its suitability as a tool for British female Culex mosquito surveillance. Trapping was carried out at 110 sites in urban and rural gardens in Berkshire in May, July and September 2013. We tested if reproductively active adult female Culex are more abundant in urban than rural gardens and if wing characteristic traits and egg raft size are influenced by location and seasonal variations. Gravid traps were highly selective for Culex mosquitoes, on average catching significantly more per trap in urban gardens (32.4 ± 6.2) than rural gardens (19.3 ± 4.0) and more in July than in May or September. The majority of females were caught alive in a good condition. Wing lengths were measured as an indicator of size. Females flying in September were significantly smaller than females in May or July. Further non-significant differences in morphology and fecundity between urban and rural populations were found that should be explored further across the seasons.

The political economy of bovine tuberculosis in Great Britain

A brief history of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and its control in Great Britain is presented. Numerous diverse policies to control the disease in man, cattle and wildlife have been pursued over the last 100 years and many millions of pounds have been spent. After notable success in reducing the incidence and prevalence of bTB in cattle in GB from the 1950s to the mid-1980s, the number of cattle slaughtered has increased with increased geographical spread continually since that time with a high point of bTB incidence in 2008. This increase appeared to coincide with changing policy regarding the control of the disease in badgers with a more humane approach adopted and with strengthened protection for badgers through legislation. Indeed, much controversy has been involved in the debate on the role of badgers in disease transmission to cattle and the need for their control as vectors of the disease with various commissioned research projects, trials, public consultations and media attention. The findings of two social science investigations presented as examples showed that citizens generally believed that bTB in cattle is an important issue that needs to be tackled but objected to badgers being killed, whilst cattle farmers were willing to pay around £17/animal/year for a bTB cattle vaccine. It is noted that successes regarding the control of bTB in other countries have combined both cattle and wildlife controls and had strong involvement from industry working with government.

Reactive nitrogen intermediate susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotypes in an urban setting

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotypes resistant to reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) predominate in certain urban communities, suggesting that this phenotype influences disease transmission. OBJECTIVE: To compare different M. tuberculosis genotypes for resistance to RNI generated in vitro. DESIGN: We genotyped 420 M. tuberculosis isolates from a neighborhood in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and analyzed them for susceptibility to RNI generated in acidified sodium nitrite (ASN) solution. RESULTS: Seventy-one (43%) of 167 recent-infection strains and 68 (43%) of 158 endogenous infection strains showed moderate- to high-level ASN resistance. CONCLUSION: ASN resistance of M. tuberculosis is not necessarily a determining factor for enhanced transmission.

Stigmatization of patients with AIDS : understanding the interrelationships between Thai nurses' attitudes towards HIV/AIDS, drug use and commercial sex

There is currently a scarcity of research on the nature of HIV/AIDS stigma within the Thai health context. This is problematic given the negative role of stigma in hindering the provision of patient care and treatment. This study used a mixed-method approach to investigate the interrelationships between the stigma of HIV/AIDS and the stigmas relating to its various modes of disease transmission including injection drug use (IDU). Twenty interviews were conducted with trainees and qualified nurses from a Bangkok college. Participants were presented with vignettes describing a hypothetical person varying in disease diagnoses (AIDS, leukemia, no disease) and co-characteristics (IDU,  commercial sex (CS), blood transfusion, no co-characteristic). Using a Q-sort task, participants arranged the vignettes along a bipolar scale according to their willingness to interact with the persons, and were asked to explain their decisions. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses showed that IDU, AIDS, and CS were all individually stigmatizing. Strong interactions were found between the stigmas of HIV/AIDS, IDU, and CS. Interview data also showed clear biases toward patients according to their IDU and CS habits. The findings  suggest that addressing these co-stigmas could be vital to the success of efforts aimed at reducing the disease stigma of HIV/AIDS.

Disentangling the stigma of HIV/AIDS from the stigmas of drugs use, commercial sex and commercial blood donation - a factorial survey of medical students in China

Background
HIV/AIDS related stigma interferes with the provision of appropriate care and support for people living with HIV/AIDS. Currently, programs to address the stigma approach it as if it occurs in isolation, separate from the co-stigmas related to the various modes of disease transmission including injection drug use (IDU) and commercial sex (CS). In order to develop better programs to address HIV/AIDS related stigma, the inter-relationship (or 'layering') between HIV/AIDS stigma and the co-stigmas needs to be better understood. This paper describes an experimental study for disentangling the layering of HIV/AIDS related stigmas.

Methods
The study used a factorial survey design. 352 medical students from Guangzhou were presented with four random vignettes each describing a hypothetical male. The vignettes were identical except for the presence of a disease diagnosis (AIDS, leukaemia, or no disease) and a co-characteristic (IDU, CS, commercial blood donation (CBD), blood transfusion or no co-characteristic). After reading each vignette, participants completed a measure of social distance that assessed the level of stigmatising attitudes.

Results
Bivariate and multivariable analyses revealed statistically significant levels of stigma associated with AIDS, IDU, CS and CBD. The layering of stigma was explored using a recently developed technique. Strong interactions between the stigmas of AIDS and the co-characteristics were also found. AIDS was significantly less stigmatising than IDU or CS. Critically, the stigma of AIDS in combination with either the stigmas of IDU or CS was significantly less than the stigma of IDU alone or CS alone.

Conclusion
The findings pose several surprising challenges to conventional beliefs about HIV/AIDS related stigma and stigma interventions that have focused exclusively on the disease stigma. Contrary to the belief that having a co-stigma would add to the intensity of stigma attached to people with HIV/AIDS, the findings indicate the presence of an illness might have a moderating effect on the stigma of certain co-characteristics like IDU. The strong interdependence between the stigmas of HIV/AIDS and the co-stigmas of IDU and CS suggest that reducing the co-stigmas should be an integral part of HIV/AIDS stigma intervention within this context.

Identifying crucial gaps in our knowledge of the life-history of avian influenza viruses - An Australian perspective

We review our current knowledge of the epidemiology and ecology of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in Australia in relation to the ecology of their hosts. Understanding the transmission and maintenance of low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses deserves scientific scrutiny because some of these may evolve to a high-pathogenic AIV (HPAI) phenotype. That the HPAI H5N1 has not been detected in Australia is thought to be a result of the low level of migratory connectivity between Asia and Australia. Some AIV strains are endemic to Australia, with Australian birds acting as a reservoir for these viruses. However, given the phylogenetic relationships between Australian and Eurasian strains, both avian migrants and resident birds within the continent must play a role in the ecology and epidemiology of AIVs in Australia. The extent to which individual variation in susceptibility to infection, previous infections, and behavioural changes in response to infection determine AIV epidemiology is little understood. Prevalence of AIVs among Australian avifauna is apparently low but, given their specific ecology and Australian conditions, prevalence may be higher in little-researched species and under specific environmental conditions.

The epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in New Zealand, 1997-2006

Aims New Zealand has a high incidence of cryptosporidiosis compared to other developed countries. This study aimed to describe the epidemiology of this disease in detail and to identify potential risk factors.

Methods We analysed anonymous cryptosporidiosis notification (1997–2006) and hospitalisation data (1996–2006). Cases were designated as “urban” or “rural” and assigned a deprivation level based on their home address. Association between disease rates and animal density was studied using a simple linear regression model, at the territorial authority level.

Results Over the 10-year period 1997–2006, the average annual rate of notified cryptosporidiosis was 22.0 cases per 100,000 population. The number of hospitalisations was equivalent to 3.6% of the notified cases. There was only 1 reported fatality. The annual incidence of infection appeared fairly stable, but showed marked seasonality with a peak rate in spring (September–November in New Zealand). The highest rates were among Europeans, children 0–9 years of age, and those living in low deprivation areas. Notification rates showed large geographic variations, with rates in rural areas 2.8 times higher than in urban areas, and with rural areas also experiencing the most pronounced spring peak. At the territorial authority (TA) level, rates were also correlated with farm animal density.

Conclusions Most transmission of Cryptosporidium in New Zealand appears to be zoonotic: from farm animals to humans. Prevention should focus on reducing transmission in rural setting, though more research is needed to identify which strategies are likely to be most effective in that environment.

Why the tuberculosis incidence rate is not falling in New Zealand

Aims To assess the role of migration from high-incidence countries, HIV/AIDS infection, and prevalence of multi-drug resistant organisms as contributors to tuberculosis (TB) incidence in New Zealand (NZ) relative to ongoing local transmission and reactivation of disease.

Methods TB notification data and laboratory data for the period 1995 to 2004 and population data from the 1996 and 2001 Census were used to calculate incidence rates of TB by age and ethnicity, country of birth (distinguishing high and low -incidence countries), and interval between migration and onset of disease. Published reports of multi-drug-resistant TB for the period 1995 to 2004 were reviewed. Anonymous HIV surveillance data held by AIDS Epidemiology Group were matched with coded and anonymised TB surveillance data to measure the extent of HIV/AIDS coinfection in notified TB cases.

Results Migration of people from high-TB incidence countries is the main source of TB in NZ. Of those who develop TB, a quarter does so within a year of migration, and a quarter of this group (mainly refugees) probably enter the country with pre-existing disease. Rates of local TB transmission and reactivation of old disease are declining steadily for NZ-born populations, except for NZ-born Māori and Pacific people under 40. HIV/AIDS and multi-drug-resistant organisms are not significant contributors to TB incidence in NZ and there is no indication that their role is increasing.

Conclusion TB incidence is not decreasing in NZ mainly due to migration of TB infected people from high-incidence countries and subsequent development of active disease in some of them in NZ. This finding emphasises the importance of regional and global TB control initiatives. Refugees and migrants are not acting as an important source of TB for most NZ-born populations. Those caring for them should have a high level of clinical suspicion for TB.

Deploying aptameric sensing technology for rapid pandemic monitoring

The genome of virulent strains may possess the ability to mutate by means of antigenic shift and/or antigenic drift as well as being resistant to antibiotics with time. The outbreak and spread of these virulent diseases including avian influenza (H1N1), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-Corona virus), cholera (Vibrio cholera), tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), Ebola hemorrhagic fever (Ebola Virus) and AIDS (HIV-1) necessitate urgent attention to develop diagnostic protocols and assays for rapid detection and screening. Rapid and accurate detection of first cases with certainty will contribute significantly in preventing disease transmission and escalation to pandemic levels. As a result, there is a need to develop technologies that can meet the heavy demand of an all-embedded, inexpensive, specific and fast biosensing for the detection and screening of pathogens in active or latent forms to offer quick diagnosis and early treatments in order to avoid disease aggravation and unnecessary late treatment costs. Nucleic acid aptamers are short, single-stranded RNA or DNA sequences that can selectively bind to specific cellular and biomolecular targets. Aptamers, as new-age bioaffinity probes, have the necessary biophysical characteristics for improved pathogen detection. This article seeks to review global pandemic situations in relation to advances in pathogen detection systems. It particularly discusses aptameric biosensing and establishes application opportunities for effective pandemic monitoring. Insights into the application of continuous polymeric supports as the synthetic base for aptamer coupling to provide the needed convective mass transport for rapid screening is also presented.

Educação em saúde em hanseníase: estratégia na educação básica, Parnamirim/RN

Leprosy is an ancient disease that still stands as a public health problem worldwide, especially in the considered developing countries. Of these, Brazil still has large areas of endemicity. The disease remains high among those younger than 15 years old. In this group, the national index achieves 0.6 every 10 000 inhabitants and reaches 2 in the North and Midwest of Brazil. Therefore, the plan of the Ministry of Health is to prioritize the fight against disease in critical areas, providing early diagnosis and timely treatment, especially for patients under 15 years old. This research aimed to: identify the knowledge of students from three schools of basic education in Parnamirim/RN about the risk of getting ill in leprosy; conduct them health education on this topic. An exploratory-descriptive study with quantitative and qualitative nature. Data collection consists of two steps: questionnaire and health education on leprosy. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC) of UFRN through the opinion nº 204/2009. Quantitative data obtained were organized, categorized, typed and submitted to the Microsoft Office - Excel for quantitative analysis with simple percentage. Qualitative data were subjected to a content analysis according to Bardin. The sample consisted of 164 students of basic education, most of which is: 1st year of high school, from 11 to 15 years, in the afternoon shift, female gender, skin color white and residents in the municipality of Parnamirim/RN. Still, each student living with four people curiously did not respond in relation to occupation of the father. But the same answered their mother as a housewife and a family income of one to less than four minimum wages. There have been significant results compared the performance of health education in leprosy. Initially, students possessed little knowledge about leprosy. Subsequent to health education, most knew the answer about the disease, transmission, cause, where to get help in case of suspicion of leprosy and the need for the people who lives with leprosy patients to also seek for help, the understanding about if it is treatable or not. Content analysis has established the following themes: axis I, what I do not know about leprosy: cure, fear and prejudice. Axis II, what I know about leprosy, we identified: cure, effectiveness of health education and social exclusion in the past. It is considered the scope of the proposed objectives by matching the effectiveness of health education on leprosy in basic education in Parnamirim/RN; emphasizes, therefore, the importance of understanding the knowledge of public school students. It is expected of them to detect early cases of leprosy in their communities; encourage adherence to treatment as quickly as possible; prevent disability; reduce the stigma surrounding the disease.

Soropositividade para doença de Chagas entre doadores de sangue em Araraquara, Estado de São Paulo, no período de 2004 a 2008

INTRODUÇÃO: A transfusão sanguínea é uma fonte potencial importante para transmissão da doença de Chagas. MÉTODOS: Foi verificado, nos arquivos do Hemonúcleo Regional de Araraquara, o resultado dos exames para doença de Chagas entre janeiro de 2004 e dezembro de 2008. RESULTADOS: Foram diagnosticadas com sorologia positiva 0,04% das 49541 doações de sangue realizadas. A idade dos soropositivos situou-se entre 51 e 60 anos. CONCLUSÕES: O baixo índice de doadores soropositivos pode reduzir o risco de transmissão via transfusional da doença de Chagas. A alta ocorrência de resultados inconclusivos indicam que os métodos diagnósticos devem ser melhorados.

Medidas contraceptivas e de proteção da transmissão do HIV por mulheres com HIV/Aids

OBJETIVO: Atualmente, entre as mulheres, a relação sexual é a forma de transmissão que mais tem contribuído para a feminização da epidemia de HIV/Aids. Na busca constante de se estabelecer padrões mais adequados de orientação para saúde, investigou-se o uso de medidas contraceptivas, que também sirvam de proteção da transmissão do HIV, entre mulheres portadoras de HIV/Aids. MÉTODOS: Estudo exploratório desenvolvido em um serviço público ambulatorial de um hospital universitário, referência aos portadores de HIV/Aids da região centro-sul do Estado de São Paulo, no período de cinco meses (2000 a 2001). Foram estudadas 73 mulheres portadoras da infecção pelo HIV, ou com Aids. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de um formulário que investigava a caracterização sociodemográfica, as formas de anticoncepção utilizada e a situação sorológica do parceiro sexual. Os dados foram analisados descritivamente e os conteúdos das respostas abertas, agrupados em temas. Foi aplicado o teste exato de Fisher para análise de algumas variáveis, em nível de 5%. Para a análise de conteúdo utilizou-se a proposta de Bardin. RESULTADOS: A maioria das mulheres estava em fase de vida reprodutiva, eram casadas e foram contaminadas quase exclusivamente por meio da relação heterossexual. Entre elas, 35,4% referiam parceiro sexual discordante quanto à sorologia anti-HIV, e 13,7% utilizavam formas inadequadas de anticoncepção que também não protegiam da transmissão do HIV. CONCLUSÕES: Os resultados alertam para a necessidade de ações educativas continuadas quanto a experiências sexuais mais seguras entre portadoras de HIV/Aids, para que elas possam discutir com seus parceiros outras formas de exercerem sua sexualidade, sendo capazes de estabelecer opção contraceptiva mais consciente, de maneira a zelar pela sua saúde, do parceiro e até do concepto.