Epidemiological characterization, antimicrobial resistance and virulence mechanisms of human and animal streptococci

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Biologia

LATERAL FLOW ASSAY FOR CRYPTOCOCCAL ANTIGEN: AN IMPORTANT ADVANCE TO IMPROVE THE CONTINUUM OF HIV CARE AND REDUCE CRYPTOCOCCAL MENINGITIS-RELATED MORTALITY

SUMMARYAIDS-related cryptococcal meningitis continues to cause a substantial burden of death in low and middle income countries. The diagnostic use for detection of cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide antigen (CrAg) in serum and cerebrospinal fluid by latex agglutination test (CrAg-latex) or enzyme-linked immunoassay (EIA) has been available for over decades. Better diagnostics in asymptomatic and symptomatic phases of cryptococcosis are key components to reduce mortality. Recently, the cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay (CrAg LFA) was included in the armamentarium for diagnosis. Unlike the other tests, the CrAg LFA is a dipstick immunochromatographic assay, in a format similar to the home pregnancy test, and requires little or no lab infrastructure. This test meets all of the World Health Organization ASSURED criteria (Affordable, Sensitive, Specific, User friendly, Rapid/robust, Equipment-free, and Delivered). CrAg LFA in serum, plasma, whole blood, or cerebrospinal fluid is useful for the diagnosis of disease caused by Cryptococcusspecies. The CrAg LFA has better analytical sensitivity for C. gattii than CrAg-latex or EIA. Prevention of cryptococcal disease is new application of CrAg LFA via screening of blood for subclinical infection in asymptomatic HIV-infected persons with CD4 counts < 100 cells/mL who are not receiving effective antiretroviral therapy. CrAg screening of leftover plasma specimens after CD4 testing can identify persons with asymptomatic infection who urgently require pre-emptive fluconazole, who will otherwise progress to symptomatic infection and/or die.

Dor à Palpação da Tiróide

A 37-years-old woman, complaining of fever, malaise, myalgia, sore throat and dysphagia lasting for 15 days, had been taking antibiotics and paracetamol for 7 days, without symptoms' improvement. The clinical examination revealed hyperaemic oropharynx and enlarged, painful thyroid. Further exams showed increased analytic inflammatory serum parameters as well as thyrotoxicosis. The thyroid gland had heterogeneous echostructure, with markedly hypoechoic areas and significant capsular oedema as well as decreased radionuclide uptake in the scintigraphy. Both symptoms and imaging improved with paracetamol and ibuprofen. Thyroid gland function normalized in two months. The patient remains in follow-up. This case reports the clinical features of subacute or De Quervain's thyroiditis. The differential medical approach to the patient with painful thyroid palpation is discussed. The diagnosis is essentially clinic, highlighting the importance of a rigorous physical exam. These patients' follow-up is required, considering the clinical and analytic progression.

Evolução de genótipos de Streptococcus agalactiae associados a colonização na grávida

Dissertação para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Microbiologia Médica

Caracterização de estirpes de Streptococcus agalactiae provenientes de colonização de tratos genitourinário e gastrointestinal da mulher grávida

Streptococcus agalactiae, ou Streptococcus do grupo B, é actualmente, o principal responsável pelo desenvolvimento de infecção neonatal, seja de início precoce (nos primeiros 7 dias de vida) ou tardio (entre os 7 dias e os 3 meses de vida). O principal factor de risco ao desenvolvimento de doença neonatal precoce é a colonização rectovaginal da mulher grávida. No presente estudo foram caracterizados 179 isolados provenientes de colonização dos tratos genitourinário e gastrointestinal da mulher grávida, obtidos no Hospital Garcia de Orta (Almada) entre 2007 e 2010. A colonização vaginal da mulher grávida neste período foi de 12%, e os serótipos mais prevalententemente detectados foram os serótipos Ia, V, IV, II e III, o que está de acordo com outros estudos efectuados em Portugal, à excepção do serótipo IV que tem sido pouco detectado na Europa. Todos os isolados se revelaram susceptíveis à penicilina, ofloxacina e vancomicina e, apenas 11.8% se revelaram susceptíveis a todos os antibióticos testados. A resistência à tetraciclina, eritromicina e clindamicina, de 2007 a 2010, foi de 86.8%, 14.6% e 9.7%, respectivamente. Não foi encontrado nenhum fenótipo de resistência à eritromicina dominante. Neste estudo o serótipo capsular mais associado à resistência à eritromicina foi o serótipo Ia, seguido pelos serótipos III, V e II. Verificou-se a presença de uma associação entre o serótipo Ia, o fenótipo M e a presença do gene mef(A). Os isolados com fenótipo cMLSB apresentaram o gene erm(B) e o gene erm(A) [erm(TR)] foi detectado em todos os isolados de fenótipo iMLSB, em ambos os casos com diversos serótipos. Os isolados pertencentes à mesma grávida foram considerados geneticamente relacionados com base na técnica de PFGE, excepto em dois casos em que as duas mulheres grávidas aparentemente estavam colonizadas por mais do que uma estirpe. Observou-se uma grande heterogeneidade populacional entre os isolados caracterizados. Relativamente à resistência aos macrólidos, a origem foi multiclonal e não derivada da disseminação de um único clone. Mais estudos epidemiológicos longitudinais são necessários para complementar os já existentes e, conhecer a evolução das estirpes de S. agalactiae em circulação, não só a nível nacional, mas em todo o mundo. Desta forma será possível definir a melhor estratégia para a criação de uma vacina adequada à variabilidade populacional de S. agalactiae.

Técnicas histopatológicas no diagnóstico de criptococose por Cryptococcus deficiente de cápsula: relato de caso

Caso de criptococose por Cryptococcus deficiente de cápsula, no qual cultivo do espécime clínico e pesquisa do antígeno capsular no líquor e soro foram negativos. As técnicas histopatológicas foram: Hematoxilina-eosina, Grocott, Mucicarmim de Mayer e Fontana-Masson. Confirmou-se o diagnóstico do Cryptococcus deficiente de cápsula pela técnica de Fontana-Masson e pela imunofluorescência direta. É discutida a potencialidade das técnicas histoquímicas.

Community prevalence of methicillin and vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in and around Bangalore, southern India

INTRODUCTION: Staphylococcus aureus is a known colonizer in humans and has been implicated in community acquired soft tissue infections. However emergence of methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has aroused great concern worldwide. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of MRSA in the community of Bangalore, southern India. METHODS: Swabs were collected from anterior nares, forearm, dorsum and palm of the hands of 1,000 healthy individuals residing in and around Bangalore, belonging to different socioeconomic strata and age groups. RESULTS: Analysis verified that 22.5% and 16.6% of the individuals presented Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA, respectively, at any of the three sites. Vancomycin resistance was observed in 1.4% of the S. aureus isolates, which was confirmed by detection of the vanA gene. It was interesting to note that 58.8% of the children in the age group 1-5 years-old presented MRSA, the highest percentage compared to other age groups of < 1 (44.4%) year-old, 5-20 (21.7%) years-old, > 40 (11%) years-old and 20-40 (9.9%) years-old. Among the population of various socioeconomic strata, maximum MRSA colonization was observed among doctors (22.2%), followed by upper economic class (18.8%), lower economic class (17.7%), apparently healthy hospital in-patients (16.5%), nurses (16%) and middle economic class (12.5%). Most of the MRSA isolates were capsular polysaccharide antigen type 8 (57.1%). CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for continuous surveillance and monitoring of the presence of MRSA in the community and a clearer understanding of the dynamics of the spread of MRSA will assist in controlling its dissemination.

A problemática da quebra de garrafas de vidro no processo de engarrafamento da JMF

A indústria alimentar tem como dever básico assegurar a qualidade dos seus produtos e garantir a segurança alimentar. Para uma eficácia no processo produtivo é necessário que o mesmo seja controlado e otimizado, sendo fundamental identificar problemas, avaliar a sua origem e encontrar soluções adequadas para a sua resolução. A José Maria da Fonseca é uma das empresas mais antigas no ramo vitivinícola, a sua missão é produzir e comercializar vinhos de qualidade reconhecida. Direcionada para a qualidade dos seus produtos, a empresa tem a consciencialização que é fundamental investir na identificação contínua de problemas do processo produtivo, que possam conduzir a oportunidades de melhoria. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu na identificação das causas da quebra de vidro na zona de engarrafamento, identificação da causa raiz, e o impacto que as partículas de vidro resultantes dessa quebra, principalmente de uma quebra com explosão possam ter sobre a segurança do produto para o consumidor. Na linha de engarrafamento, podem ocorrer quebras de garrafas no despaletizador, na máquina de lavar, na máquina de encher e na máquina de rolhar ou capsular roscas (Pilfer-Proof). As quebras de garrafas no despaletizador não são consideradas uma vez que as garrafas ainda passam por um processo de lavagem, que tem como objetivo a eliminação de objetos estranhos existentes no interior da garrafa, sendo também feita a validação deste equipamento. Após a máquina de rolhar ou capsular Pilfer-Proof, o produto encontra-se selado e livre de contaminações físicas, pelo que todo o processo produtivo deve ser controlado, com as devidas medidas de monitorização e ações corretivas de forma a evitar a sua contaminação. Neste enquadramento efetuou-se o estudo nas linhas de produção 1, 2 e 3, pois estas apresentam quebras de garrafas com explosão de vidro, que é a principal causa da contaminação do produto e dos equipamentos. Deste estudo conclui-se e explica-se as várias causas que levam à quebra de garrafa na linha de produção e identifica-se a causa raiz do problema. Devido a não se conseguir evitar o problema na causa raiz, as ações de melhoria propostas vão atuar nas ações corretivas efetuadas na máquina de encher, de forma a evitar a contaminação do produto e a garantir a segurança do consumidor.

Bacteriophage-encoded depolymerases: their diversity and biotechnological applications

Bacteriophages (phages), natural enemies of bacteria, can encode enzymes able to degrade polymeric substances. These substances can be found in the bacterial cell surface, such as polysaccharides, or are produced by bacteria when they are living in biofilm communities, the most common bacterial lifestyle. Consequently, phages with depolymerase activity have a facilitated access to the host receptors, by degrading the capsular polysaccharides, and are believed to have a better performance against bacterial biofilms, since the degradation of extracellular polymeric substances by depolymerases might facilitate the access of phages to the cells within different biofilm layers. Since the diversity of phage depolymerases is not yet fully explored, this is the first review gathering information about all the depolymerases encoded by fully sequenced phages. Overall, in this study, 160 putative depolymerases, including sialidases, levanases, xylosidases, dextranases, hyaluronidases, peptidases as well as pectate/pectin lyases, were found in 143 phages (43 Myoviridae, 47 Siphoviridae, 37 Podoviridae, and 16 unclassified) infecting 24 genera of bacteria. We further provide information about the main applications of phage depolymerases, which can comprise areas as diverse as medical, chemical, or food-processing industry.

Diseño y simulación numérica de un biorreactor: Aplicación a la producción de células microbianas

Los biorreactores son ampliamente empleados en las industrias de alimentos, fermentación, farmacéuticas y tratamiento de residuos. (...) Una característica de los biorreactores es que el medio de reacción está constituido por distintas fases. Esto hace que exista una importante interrelación entre los fenómenos bioquímicos, fisicoquímicos, fuidodinámicos y de transporte. (...) La experimentación preliminar en reactores de laboratorio, acompañada con el desarrollo de un modelo que permita comprender la naturaleza del fenómeno, es esencial para el diseño de biorreactores de capacidad de producción comercial. En el presente proyecto se establecerán, a partir de un estudio experimental a escala de laboratorio y la elaboración de un modelo y programa de simulación numérica de su operación, los factores que determinan la problemática del diseño de un reactor tanque agitado, de capacidad comercial, para la producción de cepas de Staphylococcus aureus. Los objetivos generales del presente proyecto son los siguientes: * Generar las bases técnico-científicas que permitan el diseño de un biorreactor discontinuo para la producción a escala comercial de cepas de Staphylococcus aureus. * Desarrollar equipos experimentales y generar herramientas computacionales que en el futuro permitan abordar otros problemas en el campo de la bioingeniería. Los objetivos específicos a alcanzar durante el período que abarca este proyecto de un año son los siguientes: * Determinar la cinética de crecimiento de cepas de S. aureus que contemplen la formación de productos. * Verificar el funcionamiento y calibración de sensores y controladores que forman parte del biorreactor experimental recientemente adquirido. * Estudiar experimentalmente la producción de S. aureus en un biorreactor de 3 lt. de capacidad, cuantificando el consumo de sustratos y la producción de biomasa, polisacárido capsular y exoproteínas. * Continuar con el desarrollo de un modelo matemático y un programa de simulación numérica que permitan describir la operación del reactor experimental y definir la problemática del escalado de la producción a nivel comercial.

Regulación de la función de macrófagos por Cryptococcus neoformans y Cryptococcus gattii y su participación en la generación de la inmunidad adaptativa antifúngica. Regulation of macrophage function by Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii and their role in the antifungal adaptative immunity.

La criptococosis es causada por la inhalación de levaduras encapsuladas de Cryptococcus neoformans o Cryptococcus gattii. Representa una de las tres infecciones graves por oportunistas en pacientes con SIDA y existe aproximadamente un 6 por ciento de incidencia de criptococosis clínica en pacientes con transplante de órganos sólidos. Estas dos especies difieren la fisiopatogenia durante la infección. El factor de virulencia principal de Cryptococcus sp. es la presencia del polisacárido capsular, glucuronoxilomanano (GXM), de alto peso molecular, que es continuamente secretado por las levaduras. Los macrófagos son células centrales en la respuesta innata al hongo, los cuales deben ser activados por linfocitos T helper 1 para un eficiente control de la infección. Sin embargo, estas células también son suceptibles al parasitismo intracelular, permitiendo la infección persistente y la diseminación a sitios extrapulmonares. Este proyecto propone investigar la capacidad de levaduras de C. neoformans, C. gattii y de los polisacáridos capsulares para modular la respuesta proinflamatoria de los macrófagos. Queremos estudiar si el tratamiento de macrófagos con levaduras o polisacárido puede inducir perfiles supresores de la respuesta protectiva T helper 1, tales como linfocitos T helper 2 o T reguladores, favoreciendo la sobrevida intracelular del hongo. Además, pensamos que C. neoformans o C. gattii podrían inducir un activación diferencial de macrófagos lo que condicionaría la respuesta adaptativa, lo que podría explicar las diferencias en la fisiopatogenia de estas dos especies. Procedimientos experimentales -Microorganismos y obtención de GXM: se trabajará con C. neoformans variedad grubii, cepa ATCC 62067 y C. gattii serotipo B, cepa NIH112B. Se obtendrán polisacáridos capsulares (GXM) de C. neoformans y C. gattii por precipitación con etanol y y acomplejamiento selectivo con CTAB. - Obtención de macrófagos murinos y cultivos celulares: se obtendrán macrófagos por lavados peritoneales y/o alveolares de ratones BALB/c. Los macrófagos se cultivarán por 24 h en ausencia o presencia de levaduras muertas o vivas (sin opsonizar u opsonizadas) de C. neoformans o C. gattii o en presencia de GXM purificado. -Objetivo 1. Estudio de la modulación de las propiedades proinflamatorias de Mac: en sobrenadantes de los cultivos se medirán las citoquinas por ELISA de captura y en lisados celulares, la expresión de las enzimas (iNOS, arginasa, IDO) por western blot. Se analizará por citometría de flujo la expresión de MCHII y moléculas CD80, CD86, CD40, CTLA-4. -Objetivo 2. Estudios in vitro de la capacidad de macrófagos tratados con levaduras o GXM para inducir linfocitos Th1, Th2 o Treg: los macrófagos preincubados con GXM o levaduras, se incubarán con linfocitos autólogos estimulados con anti-CD3. Se medirá la proliferación celular y el perfil de citoquinas por citomtría de flujo. Células T CD4+ CD25- serán purificadas de suspenciones esplénicas de ratones normales. Luego las células serán incubadas con macrófagos (sin tratar o tratados con levaduras o GXM) y estimulados con anti-CD3. Se analizará la proliferación celular con CFSE y expresión de CD4, CD25 y Foxp3 . - Objetivo 3. Estudios in vivo de la capacidad de levaduras o GXM para inducir linfocitos Th1, Th2 o Treg . Rol de los macrófagos in vivo: Los ratones serán inyectados con 100000 levaduras o con 200 µg de GXM puro vía endovenosa y luego de 7, 14, 30 y 40 días se evaluarán las poblaciones celulares de bazo, por citometría de flujo usando marcaciones simultáneas para CD4, CD8, CD25, Foxp3 y citoquinas intracelulares. Para investigar la participación in vivo de los macrófagos, se depletaran estas células inyectando los animales con PBS-liposomas o clodronato (DMDP)-liposomas por vía endovenosa o inhalatoria (200- 300 µl por ratón). Luego de 24 h, los animales se infectarán con levaduras o inocularán con GXM y se evaluarán los perfiles de células T esplénicos o de nódulos linfaticos.

Mdx myotubes have normal excitability but show reduced contraction-relaxation dynamics.

The pathogenesis of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), characterised by lack of the cytoskeletal protein dystrophin, is not completely understood. An early event in the degenerative process of DMD muscle could be a rise in cytosolic calcium concentration. In order to investigate whether this leads to alterations of contractile behaviour, we studied the excitability and contractile properties of cultured myotubes from control (C57BL/10) and mdx mice, an animal model for DMD. The myotubes were stimulated electrically and their motion was recorded photometrically. No significant differences were found between control and mdx myotubes with respect to the following parameters: chronaxy and rheobase (0.33 +/- 0.03 ms and 23 +/- 4 V vs. 0.39 +/- 0.07 ms and 22 +/- 2 V for C57 and mdx myotubes, respectively), tetanisation frequency (a similar distribution pattern was found between 5 and 30 Hz), fatigue during tetanus (found in 35% of both types of myotubes) and post-tetanic contracture. In contrast, contraction and relaxation times were longer (P < 0.005) in mdx (36 +/- 2 and 142 +/- 13 ms, respectively) than in control myotubes (26 +/- 1 and 85 +/- 9 ms, respectively). Together with our earlier findings, these results suggest a decreased capacity for calcium removal in mdx cells leading, in particular, to alterations of muscle relaxation.

Silicone moulding for pressure sore debridement.

The radicality of wound debridement is an important feature of the surgical treatment of pressure sores. Several methods such as injection of methylene blue or hydrogen peroxide have been proposed to facilitate and optimise the surgical debridement technique, but none of them proved to be sufficient. We present an innovative modification of the pseudo-tumour technique consisting in the injection of fluid silicone. Vulcanisation of the silicone leads to pressure-sore moulding, permitting a more radical and sterile excision. In a series of 10 paraplegic patients presenting with ischial pressure sores, silicone moulding was used to facilitate debridement. Radical en bloc debridement was achieved in all patients. After a minimal follow-up of 2 years, no complications and recurrences occurred. A three-dimensional (3D) analysis of the silicone prints objectified the pyramidal shape of ischial pressure sores. Our study showed that complete resection without capsular lesion can be easily achieved. Further, it allows the surgeon to analyse the shape and size of the resected defect, which might be helpful to select the appropriate defect coverage technique.

International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) Consensus Conference on Handling and Staging of Radical Prostatectomy Specimens. Working group 5: surgical margins.

The 2009 International Society of Urological Pathology Consensus Conference in Boston, made recommendations regarding the standardization of pathology reporting of radical prostatectomy specimens. Issues relating to surgical margin assessment were coordinated by working group 5. Pathologists agreed that tumor extending close to the 'capsular' margin, yet not to it, should be reported as a negative margin, and that locations of positive margins should be indicated as either posterior, posterolateral, lateral, anterior at the prostatic apex, mid-prostate or base. Other items of consensus included specifying the extent of any positive margin as millimeters of involvement; tumor in skeletal muscle at the apical perpendicular margin section, in the absence of accompanying benign glands, to be considered organ confined; and that proximal and distal margins be uniformly referred to as bladder neck and prostatic apex, respectively. Grading of tumor at positive margins was to be left to the discretion of the reporting pathologists. There was no consensus as to how the surgical margin should be regarded when tumor is present at the inked edge of the tissue, in the absence of transected benign glands at the apical margin. Pathologists also did not achieve agreement on the reporting approach to benign prostatic glands at an inked surgical margin in which no carcinoma is present.

Altérations anatomopathologiques liées au traitement par cerclage des globes oculaires atteints de décollement de rétine [Histological changes related to scleral buckling for treatment of retinal detachment].

Treatment of retinal detachment frequently uses biocompatible materials to obtain scleral buckling. These materials are not devoid of consequences on surrounding tissues. In 3 eyes enucleated for failure of surgical treatment using scleral buckling materials, the changes prompted by episcleral implants could be observed. The sclera underwent both an inversion of its curvature and a reduction of its thickness under the material, as well as an encapsulation of the material was observed. While a silicone sponge was used in part to encircle one of these eyes, its capsular inner surface was regular and smooth. In contrast, hydrogel implants used in the three eyes showed a peripheral fragmentation prompting in two of them a typical foreign body giant cell granulomatous reaction. Changes in scleral curvature and scleral thinning were observed reflecting the consequences of the buckling procedure. The capsule formation occurred as it does for any nonabsorbable matérial implanted in tissues. Degradation and fragmentation of the hydrogel material suscitated a granuloma in response to fragments. These hydrogel specific changes should be recognized on microscopic examination of slides of either capsule or eyes previously in contact with this implanted material. They attested of the instability of hydrogel after implantation.