Microbe-induced Innate Immune Responses in Human Dendritic Cells

Two types of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), function at the interface of innate and adaptive immunity. Through recognition of conserved microbial patterns, they are able to detect the invading pathogens. This leads to activation of signal transduction pathways that in turn induce gene expression of various molecules required for immune responses and eventually pathogen clearance. Cytokines are among the genes induced upon detection of microbes. They play an important role in regulating host immune responses during microbial infection. Chemotactic cytokines, chemokines, are involved in migratory events of immune cells. Cytokines also promote the differentiation of distinct T cell responses. Because of the multiple roles of cytokines in the immune system, the cytokine network needs to be tightly regulated. In this work, the induction of innate immune responses was studied using human primary macrophages or DCs as cell models. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium served as a model for an intracellular bacterium, whereas Sendai virus was used in virus experiments. The starting point of this study was that DCs of mouse origin had recently been characterized as host cells for Salmonella. However, only little was known about the immune responses initiated in Salmonella-infected human DCs. Thus, cellular responses of macrophages and DCs, in particular the pattern of cytokine production, to Salmonella infection were compared. Salmonella-induced macrophages and DCs were found to produce multiple cytokines including interferon (IFN) -gamma, which is conventionally produced by T and natural killer (NK) cells. Both macrophages and DCs also promoted the intracellular survival of the bacterium. Phenotypic maturation of DCs as characterized by upregulation of costimulatory and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules, and production of CCL19 chemokine, were also detected upon infection with Salmonella. Another focus of this PhD work was to unravel the regulatory events controlling the expression of cytokine genes encoding for CCL19 and type III IFNs, which are central to DC biology. We found that the promoters of CCL19 and type III IFNs contain similar regulatory elements that bind nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), which could mediate transcriptional activation of the genes. The regulation of type III IFNs in virus infection resembled that of type I IFNs a cytokine class traditionally regarded as antiviral. The induction of type I and type III IFNs was also observed in response to bacterial infection. Taken together, this work identifies new details about the interaction of Salmonella with its phagocytic host cells of human origin. In addition, studies provide information on the regulatory events controlling the expression of CCL19 and the most recently identified IFN family genes, type III IFN genes.

Microbe-induced activation of inflammatory cytokine response in human cells

Human body is in continuous contact with microbes. Although many microbes are harmless or beneficial for humans, pathogenic microbes possess a threat to wellbeing. Antimicrobial protection is provided by the immune system, which can be functionally divided into two parts, namely innate and adaptive immunity. The key players of the innate immunity are phagocytic white blood cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), which constantly monitor the blood and peripheral tissues. These cells are armed for rapid activation upon microbial contact since they express a variety of microbe-recognizing receptors. Macrophages and DCs also act as antigen presenting cells (APCs) and play an important role in the development of adaptive immunity. The development of adaptive immunity requires intimate cooperation between APCs and T lymphocytes and results in microbe-specific immune responses. Moreover, adaptive immunity generates immunological memory, which rapidly and efficiently protects the host from reinfection. Properly functioning immune system requires efficient communication between cells. Cytokines are proteins, which mediate intercellular communication together with direct cell-cell contacts. Immune cells produce inflammatory cytokines rapidly following microbial contact. Inflammatory cytokines modulate the development of local immune response by binding to cell surface receptors, which results in the activation of intracellular signalling and modulates target cell gene expression. One class of inflammatory cytokines chemokines has a major role in regulating cellular traffic. Locally produced inflammatory chemokines guide the recruitment of effector cells to the site of inflammation during microbial infection. In this study two key questions were addressed. First, the ability of pathogenic and non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria to activate inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in different human APCs was compared. In these studies macrophages and DCs were stimulated with pathogenic Steptococcus pyogenes or non-pathogenic Lactobacillus rhamnosus. The second aim of this thesis work was to analyze the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the regulation of microbe-induced chemokine production. In these studies bacteria-stimulated macrophages and influenza A virus-infected lung epithelial cells were used as model systems. The results of this study show that although macrophages and DCs share several common antimicrobial functions, these cells have significantly distinct responses against pathogenic and non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacteria. Macrophages were activated in a nearly similar fashion by pathogenic S. pyogenes and non-pathogenic L. rhamnosus. Both bacteria induced the production of similar core set of inflammatory chemokines consisting of several CC-class chemokines and CXCL8. These chemokines attract monocytes, neutrophils, dendritic cells and T cells. Thus, the results suggest that bacteria-activated macrophages efficiently recruit other effector cells to the site of inflammation. Moreover, macrophages seem to be activated by all bacteria irrespective of their pathogenicity. DCs, in contrast, were efficiently activated only by pathogenic S. pyogenes, which induced DC maturation and production of several inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In contrast, L. rhamnosus-stimulated DCs matured only partially and, most importantly, these cells did not produce inflammatory cytokines or chemokines. L. rhamnosus-stimulated DCs had a phenotype of "semi-mature" DCs and this type of DCs have been suggested to enhance tolerogenic adaptive immune responses. Since DCs have an essential role in the development of adaptive immune response the results suggest that, in contrast to macrophages, DCs may be able to discriminate between pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria and thus mount appropriate inflammatory or tolerogenic adaptive immune response depending on the microbe in question. The results of this study also show that pro-inflammatory cytokines can contribute to microbe-induced chemokine production at multiple levels. S. pyogenes-induced type I interferon (IFN) was found to enhance the production of certain inflammatory chemokines in macrophages during bacterial stimulation. Thus, bacteria-induced chemokine production is regulated by direct (microbe-induced) and indirect (pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced) mechanisms during inflammation. In epithelial cells IFN- and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) were found to enhance the expression of PRRs and components of cellular signal transduction machinery. Pre-treatment of epithelial cells with these cytokines prior to virus infection resulted in markedly enhanced chemokine response compared to untreated cells. In conclusion, the results obtained from this study show that pro-inflammatory cytokines can enhance microbe-induced chemokine production during microbial infection by providing a positive feedback loop. In addition, pro-inflammatory cytokines can render normally low-responding cells to high chemokine producers via enhancement of microbial detection and signal transduction.

Pathophysiology of Congenital Nephrotic Syndrome of the Finnish type

Congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type (NPHS1) is an autosomal recessive disease which is highly enriched in the Finnish population. It is caused by mutations in the NPHS1 gene encoding for nephrin, which is a major component of the glomerular filtration barrier in the kidney. Patients with NPHS1 have heavy proteinuria and nephrotic syndrome (NS) from birth and develop renal fibrosis in early childhood. Renal transplantation (TX) is the only curative treatment for NPHS1. These patients form the largest group of pediatric kidney transplant children in our country. The NPHS1 kidneys are removed in infancy and they serve as an excellent human material for studies of the pathophysiology of proteinuric kidney diseases. Sustained proteinuria is a major factor leading to end-stage renal failure and understanding this process is crucial for nephrology. In this study we investigated the glomerular and tubulointerstitial changes that occur in the NPHS1 kidneys during infancy as well as the expression of nephrin in non-renal tissues. We also studied the pathology and management of recurrent proteinuria in kidney grafts transplanted to NPHS1 children. Severe renal lesions evolved in patients with NPHS1 during the first months of life. Glomerular sclerosis developed through progressive mesangial sclerosis, and capillary obliteration was an early consequence of this process. Shrinkage of the glomerular tuft was common, whereas occlusion of tubular opening or protrusion of the glomerular tuft into subepithelial space or through the Bowman's capsule were not detected. Few inflammatory cells were detected in the mesangial area. The glomerular epithelial cells (podocytes) showed severe ultrastructural changes and hypertrophy. Podocyte proliferation and apoptosis were rare, but moderate amounts of podocytes were detached and ended up in the urine. The results showed that endocapillary lesions not extracapillary lesions, as generally believed were important for the sclerotic process in the NPHS1 glomeruli. In the tubulointerstitium, severe lesions developed in NPHS1 kidneys during infancy. Despite heavy proteinuria, tubular epithelial cells (TECs) did not show transition into myofibroblasts. The most abundant chemokines in NPHS1 tissue were neutrophil activating protein-2 (NAP-2), macrophage inhibiting factor (MIF), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Interstitial inflammation and fibrosis were first detected in the paraglomerular areas and the most abundant inflammatory cells were monocytes/macrophages. Arteries and arterioles showed intimal hypertrophy, but the pericapillary microvasculature remained quite normal. However, excessive oxidative stress was evident in NPHS1 kidneys. The results indicated that TECs were relatively resistant to the heavy tubular protein load. Nephrin was at first thought to be podocyte specific, but some studies especially in experimental animals have suggested that nephrin might also be expressed in non-renal tissues such as pancreas and central nervous system. The knowledge of nephrin biology is important for the evaluation of nephrin related diseases. In our study, no significant amounts of nephrin protein or mRNA were detected in non-renal tissues of man and pig as studied by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. The phenotype analysis of NPHS1 children, who totally lack nephrin, revealed no marked impairment in the neurological, testicular, or pancreatic function speaking against the idea that nephrin would play an important functional role outside the kidney. The NPHS1 kidneys do not express nephrin and antibodies against this major glomerular filter protein have been observed in NPHS1 children after renal TX most likely as an immune reaction against a novel antigen. These antibodies have been associated with the development of recurrent NS in the kidney graft of NPHS1 patients. In our study, a third of the NPHS1 patients homozygous for Fin-Major mutation developed recurrent NS in the transplanted graft. Re-transplantations were performed to patients who lost their graft due to recurrent NS and heavy proteinuria immediately developed in all cases. While 73% of the patients had detectable serum anti-nephrin antibodies, the kidney biopsy findings were minimal. Introduction of plasma exchange (PE) to the treatment of recurrent nephroses increased the remission rate from 54% to 89%. If remission was achieved, recurrent NS did not significantly deteriorate the long term graft function. In conclusion, the results show that the lack of nephrin in podocyte slit diaphragm in NPHS1 kidneys induces progressive mesangial expansion and glomerular capillary obliteration and inflicts interstitial fibrosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress with surprisingly little involvement of the TECs in this process. Nephrin appears to have no clinical significance outside the kidney. Development of antibodies against nephrin seems to be a major cause of recurrent NS in kidney grafts of NPHS1 patients and combined use of PE and cyclophosphamide markedly improved remission rates.

KAT5 (Tip60) is a potential therapeutic target in malignant pleural mesothelioma

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a rare aggressive cancer of the pleura. Asbestos exposure (through inhalation) is the most well established risk factor for mesothelioma. The current standard of care for patients suffering from MPM is a combination of cisplatin and pemetrexed (or alternatively cisplatin and raltitrexed). Most patients, however, die within 24 months of diagnosis. New therapies are therefore urgently required for this disease. Lysine acetyltransferases (KATs) including KAT5 have been linked with the development of cisplatin resistance. This gene may therefore be altered in MPM and could represent a novel candidate target for intervention. Using RT-PCR screening the expression of all known KAT5 variants was found to be markedly increased in malignant tumors compared to benign pleura. When separated according to histological subtype, KAT5 was significantly overexpressed in both the sarcomatoid and biphasic subgroups for all transcript variants. A panel of MPM cell lines including the normal pleural cells LP9 and Met5A was screened for expression of KAT5 variants. Treatment of cells with a small molecule inhibitor of KAT5 (MG-149) caused significant inhibition of cellular proliferation (p<0.0001), induction of apoptosis and was accompanied by significant induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines.

The role of inflammation and matrix proteins in airway remodelling

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways. Remodelling in asthma is defined as the structural changes seen in the airways of asthmatics in comparison to healthy controls. Progressive loss of lung function also seen in asthma might be caused by remodelling. The research aims of this thesis were to investigate inflammation and remodelling in the airways of different types of asthmatics and smokers. The association between inflammation and remodelling was also examined in a mouse model of allergic airway inflammation. Healthy smokers showed increased numbers of macrophages in the BAL with no changes in the inflammatory cells in biopsies. Macrophages seemed to be quite quiescent, since mRNA expression for a wide variety of inflammatory mediators, especially chemokines CCL3, CCL4, CCL5 and CCL20, secreted by macrophages was significantly lower than in healthy non-smokers. Attenuated macrophage activity in the airway lumen may render smokers more susceptible to airway infections and have an impact on the development of other airway pathology. Patients with diisocyanate-induced asthma (DIA) on inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) who still had non-specific bronchial hyperreactivity (NSBHR) at the end of the follow-up showed increased expression of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-15 mRNA in BAL cells compared to those without NSBHR. In addition to being markers for poor prognosis and possible slight glucocorticoid resistance, these cytokines might aid in guiding the treatment of DIA. The increase in the thickness of tenascin-C layer in the bronchial basement membrane (BM) was much less than usually seen in other types of asthma, which might not make tenascin-C a good marker for DIA. OVA-induced tenascin-C expression in the lung was attenuated in STAT4-/- mice with impaired Th1-type immunity compared to WT mice. Interestingly, STAT6-/- mice with impaired Th2-type immunity showed tenascin-C expression levels similar to those of WT mice. The clearest difference between these two knockout strains in response to OVA was that STAT4-/- mice exhibited no upregulation of IFN-γ and TNF-α mRNA expression. Thus, tenascin-C expression was unexpectedly more related to Th1 type reactions. In vitro studies confirmed the results. Human fibroblasts stimulated by TNF-α and IFN-γ showed increased expression of tenascin-C. Patients with newly diagnosed asthma showed increased expression of laminin α2 in the bronchial BM in comparison to patients with asthma symptoms only and healthy controls. Both patients with asthma and those with only asthma symptoms showed increased expression of the laminin β2 chain in comparison to controls. Thus, laminin α2 expression differentiated patients with clinical asthma from patients with symptoms only. Furthermore, the expression of laminin α2 and β2 was associated with NSBHR, linking very specific remodelling events to clinical findings.

Cytochrome P4504f, a potential therapeutic target limiting neuroinflammation

Inflammatory processes are involved in the pathogenesis and/or progression of acute central nervous system (CNS) infection, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders among others indicating the need for novel strategies to limit neuroinflammation. Eicosanoids including leukotrienes, particularly leukotriene B-4 (LTB4) are principle mediator(s) of inflammatory response, initiating and amplifying the generation of cytokines and chemokines. Cytochrome P450 (Cyp), a family of heme proteins mediate metabolism of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds, such as eicosanoids and leukotrienes. Cytochrome P4504F (Cyp4f) subfamily includes five functional enzymes in mouse. We cloned and expressed the mouse Cyp4f enzymes, assayed their relative expression in brain and examined their ability to hydroxylate the inflammatory cascade prompt LTB4 to its inactive 20-hydroxylated product. We then examined the role of Cyp4fs in regulating inflammatory response in vitro, in microglial cells and in vivo, in mouse brain using lipopolysacharide (LPS), as a model compound to generate inflammatory response. We demonstrate that mouse brain Cyp4fs are expressed ubiquitously in several cell types in the brain, including neurons and microglia, and modulate inflammatory response triggered by LPS, in vivo and in microglial cells, in vitro through metabolism of LTB4 to the inactive 20-hydroxy LTB4. Chemical inhibitor or shRNA to Cyp4fs enhance and inducer of Cyp4fs attenuates inflammatory response. Further, induction of Cyp4f expression lowers LTB4 levels and affords neuroprotection in microglial cells or mice exposed to LPS. Thus, catalytic activity of Cyp4fs is a novel target for modulating neuroinflammation through hydroxylation of LTB4. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of benzothiophene carboxamides as analgesics and anti-inflammatory agents

Nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent standard therapy for the alleviation of pain and inflammation. At present various classes of compounds have been reported as selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). However, they are associated with adverse side effects. To address these issues, we report here a new class of compounds that exhibit potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory response. Substituted bromo-benzothiophene carboxamides (4-11) were examined for their analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. Our findings demonstrate that newly synthesized bromo-benzothiophene carboxamide derivatives 4, 6, and 8 attenuate nociception and inflammation at lower concentration than classical NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen. These compounds act by selectively inhibiting COX-2 and by disrupting the prostaglandin-E2-dependent positive feedback of COX-2 regulation, which was further substantiated by reduction in the levels of cytokines, chemokines, neutrophil accumulation, synthesis of prostaglandin-E2, expression of COX-2, and neutrophil activation at lower concentration than the classic NSAID ibuprofen. Toxicological study reveals that these compounds are well tolerated and metabolized to avoid any toxicity. Thus, these molecules represent a new class of analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents. (c) 2014 IUBMB Life, 66(3):201-211, 2014

The MHP36 line of murine neural stem cells expresses functional CXCR1 chemokine receptors that initiate chemotaxis in vitro.

Chemokines help to establish cerebral inflammation after ischemia, which comprises a major component of secondary brain injury. The CXCR4 chemokine receptor system induces neural stem cell migration, and hence has been implicated in brain repair. We show that CXCR1 and interleukin-8 also stimulate chemotaxis in murine neural stem cells from the MHP36 cell line. The presence of CXCR1 was confirmed by reverse transcriptase PCR and immunohistochemistry. Interleukin-8 evoked intracellular calcium currents, upregulated doublecortin (a protein expressed by migrating neuroblasts), and elicited positive chemotaxis in vitro. Therefore, effectors of the early innate immune response may also influence brain repair mechanisms.

Tunable heparan sulfate glycomimetics for modulating chemokine activity

Heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans participate in critical biological processes by modulating the activity of a diverse set of protein binding partners. Such proteins include all known members of the chemokine superfamily, which are thought to guide the migration of distinct subsets of immune cells through their interactions with HS proteoglycans on endothelial cell surfaces. Animal-derived heparin polysaccharides have been shown to reduce inflammation levels through the inhibition of HS-chemokine interactions; however, the clinical usage of heparin as an anti-inflammatory drug is hampered by its anticoagulant activity and potential risk for side effects, such as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT).

Here, we describe an expedient, divergent synthesis to prepare defined glycomimetics of HS that recapitulate the macromolecular structure and biological activity of natural HS glycosaminoglycans. Our synthetic approach uses a core disaccharide precursor to generate a library of four differentially sulfated polymers. We show that a trisulfated glycopolymer antagonizes the chemotactic activities of pro-inflammatory chemokine RANTES with similar potency as heparin polysaccharide, without potentiating the anticoagulant activities of antithrombin III. The same glycopolymer also inhibited the homeostatic chemokine SDF-1 with significantly more efficacy than heparin. Our work offers a general strategy for modulating chemokines and dissecting the pleiotropic functions of HS/heparin through the presentation of defined sulfation motifs within multivalent polymeric scaffolds.

Estudo da resposta celular e apresentação antigênica dos fibrócitos na infecção por Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis

Os fibrócitos foram inicialmente identificados pelo seu recrutamento rápido para os tecidos lesionados e por atuar diretamente na resposta imune através do reconhecimento, apresentação antigênica e produção de citocinas e quimiocinas. Segundo Grab (2004) fibrócitos podem participar da resposta imune na leishmaniaose e por isso no presente estudo propomos analisar a resposta celular e apresentação antigênica dos fibrócitos na infecção por L. (L.) amazonensis. Para os experimentos in vivo camundongos C57BL/6 e knockout para o receptor TLR-2 foram inoculados na derme auricular com 105 formas promastigotas de L. (L.) amazonensis e 1, 7, 15 dias após a infecção as regiões de inóculo e os linfonodos foram retirados e processados para citometria de fluxo. Para os experimentos in vitro fibrócitos foram obtidos de mononucleares do sangue periférico de camundongos C57BL/6. Os fibrócitos foram avaliados quanto às suas características morfológicas e fenotípicas, infecção, expressão de MHC-II/B7-1/B7-2 e ativação de linfócitos T CD4+. As análises na região de inóculo mostraram o aumento no percentual de fibrócito na derme de camundongos após 15 dias de infecção tanto em animais C57BL/6 quanto em animais KO TLR-2. Neste sítio, os fibrócitos produziram citocinas e expressaram MHC-II, B7-1 e B7-2 podendo participar da resposta imune. As análises no linfonodo mostraram a existência de um alto percentual de fibrócitos nos animais controle, contudo, após infecção este percentual foi reduzido. Após infecção verificamos que os fibrócitos de animais WT C57BL/6 foram capazes de produzir as citocinas IL-4, IL-10 e IFN- durante o primeiro dia. Entretanto, na ausência de TLR-2 os fibrócitos presentes no linfonodo produziram TNF-α e IFN- que podem estar relacionadas com a ativação celular e aumento da capacidade de apresentação antigênica destas células durante a infecção. No linfonodo verificamos que os fibrócitos podem participar da apresentação antigênica após a infecção por L. (L.) amazonensis. Contudo, nos linfonodos de animais WT C57BL/6 observamos a redução significativa no percentual destas células expressando MHC-II e B7-1, o que pode estar relacionada a presença do TLR-2. Nos ensaios in vitro fibrócitos de camundongos C57BL/6 apresentaram alta capacidade endocítica, eliminaram os parasitas nas primeiras 24 horas de infecção, expressaram MHC-II/B7-1/B7-2 e foram capazes de ativar linfócitos T CD4+. Com isso, nossos resultados sugerem que os fibrócitos podem atuar na resposta celular e na apresentação antigênica durante a infecção por L. (L.) amazonensis, contudo estas funções podem ser moduladas pela participação do TLR-2 e pelo microambiente onde estes se encontram.

Hanseníase neural, aspectos diagnósticos da forma neural pura e mecanismos imunopatogênicos da lesão do nervo na doença. Participação de quimiocinas CCL2 e CXCL10 e metaloproteinases 2 e 9

O diagnóstico da hanseníase neural pura baseia-se em dados clínicos e laboratoriais do paciente, incluindo a histopatologia de espécimes de biópsia de nervo e detecção de DNA de Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae) pelo PCR. Como o exame histopatológico e a técnica PCR podem não ser suficientes para confirmar o diagnóstico, a imunomarcação de lipoarabinomanana (LAM) e/ou Glicolipídio fenólico 1 (PGL1) - componentes de parede celular de M. leprae foi utilizada na primeira etapa deste estudo, na tentativa de detectar qualquer presença vestigial do M. leprae em amostras de nervo sem bacilos. Além disso, sabe-se que a lesão do nervo na hanseníase pode diretamente ser induzida pelo M. leprae nos estágios iniciais da infecção, no entanto, os mecanismos imunomediados adicionam severidade ao comprometimento da função neural em períodos sintomáticos da doença. Este estudo investigou também a expressão imuno-histoquímica de marcadores envolvidos nos mecanismos de patogenicidade do dano ao nervo na hanseníase. Os imunomarcadores selecionados foram: quimiocinas CXCL10, CCL2, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD45RA, CD45RO, CD68, HLA-DR, e metaloproteinases 2 e 9. O estudo foi desenvolvido em espécimes de biópsias congeladas de nervo coletados de pacientes com HNP (n=23 / 6 BAAR+ e 17 BAAR - PCR +) e pacientes diagnosticados com outras neuropatias (n=5) utilizados como controle. Todas as amostras foram criosseccionadas e submetidas à imunoperoxidase. Os resultados iniciais demonstraram que as 6 amostras de nervos BAAR+ são LAM+/PGL1+. Já entre as 17 amostras de nervos BAAR-, 8 são LAM+ e/ou PGL1+. Nas 17 amostras de nervos BAAR-PCR+, apenas 7 tiveram resultados LAM+ e/ou PGL1+. A detecção de imunorreatividade para LAM e PGL1 nas amostras de nervo do grupo HNP contribuiu para a maior eficiência diagnóstica na ausência recursos a diagnósticos moleculares. Os resultados da segunda parte deste estudo mostraram que foram encontradas imunoreatividade para CXCL10, CCL2, MMP2 e MMP9 nos nervos da hanseníase, mas não em amostras de nervos com outras neuropatias. Além disso, essa imunomarcação foi encontrada predominantemente em células de Schwann e em macrófagos da população celular inflamatória nos nervos HNP. Os outros marcadores de ativação imunológica foram encontrados em leucócitos (linfócitos T e macrófagos) do infiltrado inflamatório encontrados nos nervos. A expressão de todos os marcadores, exceto CXCL10, apresentou associação com a fibrose, no entanto, apenas a CCL2, independentemente dos outros imunomarcadores, estava associada a esse excessivo depósito de matriz extracelular. Nenhuma diferença na frequência da imunomarcação foi detectada entre os subgrupos BAAR+ e BAAR-, exceção feita apenas às células CD68+ e HLA-DR+, que apresentaram discreta diferença entre os grupos BAAR + e BAAR- com granuloma epitelioide. A expressão de MMP9 associada com fibrose é consistente com os resultados anteriores do grupo de pesquisa. Estes resultados indicam que as quimiocinas CCL2 e CXCL10 não são determinantes para o estabelecimento das lesões com ou sem bacilos nos em nervo em estágios avançados da doença, entretanto, a CCL2 está associada com o recrutamento de macrófagos e com o desenvolvimento da fibrose do nervo na lesão neural da hanseníase.

Efeitos genotóxicos e indução do SOS em mutantes derivados de Escherichia coli K-12 durante o processo de interação com superfícies bióticas e abióticas

A célula epitelial é o primeiro contato entre os micro-organismos e o hospedeiro. Essa interação pode levar a produção de diversas citocinas, quimiocinas, moléculas inflamatórias e também estimular a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ERO). Neste trabalho avaliamos se a interação com as células HEp-2 poderia ser genotóxica para os mutantes derivados de Escherichia coli K-12 deficientes em algumas enzimas que fazem parte do sistema de reparo por excisão de base (BER). Além disto, avaliamos a expressão do sistema SOS, que é induzido pela presença de danos no genoma bacteriano. Os resultados obtidos mostraram a presença de filamentos, na interação com células HEp-2, principalmente, no mutante xthA (BW9091) e no triplo mutante xthA nfo nth (BW535). Quando a interação foi quantificada na ausência da D-manose, observamos um aumento das bactérias aderidas. Além disto, a quantidade e o tamanho dos filamentos também aumentaram, mostrando que as adesinas manose-sensíveis estavam envolvidas na filamentação bacteriana. Para comprovar se o aumento da filamentação observada neste ensaio foram uma consequência da indução do sistema SOS, desencadeada pela interação com as células HEp-2, quantificamos a expressão do SOS, na presença e na ausência da D-manose. De fato, observamos que a indução do SOS na ausência da D-manose foi maior, quando comparada, com o ensaio realizado na presença de D-manose. Além disto, observamos que a ausência de xthA foi importante para o aumento da filamentação observada na ausência de D-manose. Diante destes resultados, verificamos se a resposta de filamentação ocorreria quando as bactérias interagiam com uma superfície abiótica como o vidro. Observamos também inúmeros filamentos nos mutantes BER, BW9091 e BW535, quando comparados a cepa selvagem AB1157. Essa filamentação foi associada à indução do SOS, em resposta a interação das bactérias com o vidro. Em parte a filamentação e a indução do SOS observadas na interação ao vidro, foram associadas à produção de ERO. Quantificamos também o número de bactérias aderidas e observamos que as nossas cepas formavam biofilmes moderados. Contudo, a formação de biofilme dependia da capacidade da bactéria induzir o sistema SOS, tanto em aerobiose como em anaerobiose. A tensão do oxigênio foi importante para interação dos mutantes BER, uma vez que os mutantes BW9091 e BW535 apresentaram uma quantidade de bactérias aderidas menor em anaerobiose. Contudo, a diminuição observada não estava vinculada a morte dos mutantes BER. Também realizamos microscopia de varredura na cepa selvagem e nos mutantes, BW9091 e BW535 e confirmamos que as três cepas formavam biofilmes tanto em aerobiose como em anaerobiose. Observamos uma estrutura sugestiva de matriz extracelular envolvendo os biofilmes da cepa selvagem AB1157 e do mutante BW9091. No entanto, a formação desta estrutura por ambas as cepas dependia da tensão de oxigênio, pois nos biofilmes formados em anaerobiose essa estrutura estava ausente. Em conclusão, mostramos que na interação das bactérias com a superfície biótica e abiótica, ocorreu lesão no genoma, com indução do SOS e a resposta de filamentação associada.

Perfil de secreção de citocinas e de ativação de células endoteliais após interação com cepas selvagens e mutantes de Aspergillus fumigatus

Apesar do desenvolvimento de novas drogas antifúngicas e da sua utilização como terapia profilática visando à prevenção de infecções fúngicas invasivas, estas ainda constituem-se num problema emergente, com elevadas taxas de mortalidade. Neste contexto, destaca-se a aspergilose invasiva, uma infecção fúngica oportunista que acomete pacientes com neutropenia profunda e prolongada, principalmente os pacientes com leucemia aguda ou submetidos a transplante de medula óssea. Aspergillus fumigatus, um fungo filamentoso, é o principal agente etiológico da aspergilose invasiva, sendo um patógeno angioinvasivo. As hifas deste fungo são capazes de causar injúria e ativação endotelial, induzindo o endotélio a um fenótipo pró-trombótico, que por sua vez, é mediado pela secreção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, em especial, o TNF-α. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a capacidade de cepas mutantes de A. fumigatus em ativar células endoteliais, avaliando o perfil de secreção de citocinas em meio condicionado e a expressão de fator tecidual. Resumidamente, monocamadas confluentes de células endoteliais isoladas da veia umbilical humana foram incubadas com conídios e tubos germinativos de cepas selvagens (Af293 e Ku80) e mutantes (Δugm1, ΔcalA, ΔcrzA, ΔprtT) de A. fumigatus. A taxa de adesão e endocitose destas cepas às monocamadas de HUVEC foi avaliada a partir de um ensaio quantitativo de imunofluorescência diferencial. O perfil cinético de secreção de citocinas foi determinado em meio condicionado das HUVECs, por ensaio de multiplex para IL-6, IL-8 e TNF-α. A ativação endotelial, por sua vez, foi determinada pela expressão de fator tecidual por RT-PCR em tempo real. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a mutante para o gene ugm1, responsável por codificar a enzima UDP-galactopiranose mutase, que converte resíduos de galactopiranose a galactofuranose, apresentou um fenótipo hiperaderente às células endoteliais e um estímulo 10 vezes maior à secreção de TNF-α e 2,5 vezes maior a secreção de IL-6, quando comparada a ativação observada para as cepas selvagens. A galactofuranose é um componente importante de glicoconjugados da parede celular de A. fumigatus. Dessa forma, a ausência desse monossacarídeo na célula fúngica leva a um mecanismo compensatório caracterizado por um aumento na expressão de moléculas de galactosaminogalactana na parede celular. De maneira contrária, mutantes para os genes calA e crzA, apresentaram um fenótipo hipoaderente às HUVECs e uma perda na capacidade de induzir a secreção de citocinas e ativar o endotélio. Essas mutantes apresentam deleções que interferem na via de cálcio/calcineurina, responsável por regular a morfogênese e virulência de A. fumigatus, além de apresentarem alterações no conteúdo de beta-1-3 glucana. Já a cepa ΔprtT, mutante para o fator de transcrição prtT que regula a secreção de múltiplas proteases, apresentou um fenótipo de adesão, estímulo e ativação endotelial semelhante ao observado para as cepas selvagens. A comparação entre a capacidade de conídios e tubos germinativos em ativar células endoteliais, corroborou achados anteriores da literatura que reportam que só hifas são capazes de ativar células endoteliais, independentemente da sua viabilidade. Os dados deste estudo permitiram concluir que dentre os componentes de superfície celular de A. fumigatus, os polímeros de galactose, em especial a galactosaminogalactana, parecem ser responsáveis, pelo menos em parte, pelos mecanismos de interação e ativação endotelial.

Estudo proteômico da interação do Aspergillus fumigatus com células endoteliais da veia umbilical humana (HUVECs)

O Aspergillus fumigatus é o principal agente etiológico da aspergilose invasiva, uma infecção fúngica oportunista que acomete, principalmente, pacientes de Unidades Hematológicas, como aqueles com neutropenia profunda e prolongada. Após a filamentação este fungo angioinvasivo é capaz de ativar e causar danos em células endoteliais de veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) que passam a expressar um fenótipo pró-trombótico. A ativação destas células, dependente de contato célulacélula, é mediada por TNF-α e caracterizada pela expressão de moléculas próinflamatórias, como citocinas, quimiocinas e moléculas de adesão. Recentemente, nosso grupo comparou a ativação endotelial de HUVECs desafiadas com cepas selvagens e uma cepa mutante para o gene UGM1. Nestes experimentos a cepa mutante Δugm1, que apresenta um fenótipo de maior produção de galactosaminogalactana (GAG) na parede celular, mostrou um fenótipo hiperadesivo e uma capacidade maior de ativar células endoteliais. Entretanto, os receptores e as vias de sinalização envolvidos nesta ativação permanecem desconhecidos. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar as proteínas envolvidas nestes processos através do estudo das proteínas diferencialmente expressas nas HUVECs após a interação com A. fumigatus, usando a técnica proteômica 2D-DIGE. Brevemente, as HUVECs foram infectadas com tubos germinativos da cepa selvagem (AF293) e da cepa Δugm1 de A. fumigatus. Em seguida, as proteínas foram marcadas com diferentes fluorocromos e separadas por eletroforese bidimensional. A análise quantitativa foi realizada utilizando o software DeCyder. Foram identificadas por MS/MS cinco proteínas diferencialmente expressas, incluindo a galectina-1 e a anexina A2, ambas mais expressas após a interação, sendo a primeira ~25% mais expressa após a interação com a mutante Δugm1. Este trabalho propõe que a galectina-1 poderia ser o receptor endotelial para polímeros de galactose presentes na parede celular do A. fumigatus, e que a Anexina A2 poderia estar envolvida na sinalização intracelular em resposta a este patógeno. No entanto, experimentos complementares, em curso, são necessários para comprovar esta hipótese.

Efeito do tratamento com a proteína quimérica IL-13PE sobre a inflamação pulmonar induzida por partículas de sílica em camundongos

A interleucina 13 (IL-13) tem sido apontada como um dos principais mediadores em processos de ativação de fibroblastos e indução de fibrose pulmonar, sendo, portanto, considerada como um alvo terapêutico importante. A silicose é uma doença pulmonar inflamatória crônica, de caráter ocupacional, caracterizada por uma intensa resposta fibrótica e granulomatosa. Com base nestas observações, tivemos por objetivo investigar o potencial efeito da administração da imunotoxina IL-13-PE38QQR (IL-13PE) sobre o modelo de silicose em camundongos. Camundongos Swiss-Webster foram anestesiados e instilados intranasalmente com partículas de sílica (10 mg), sendo a administração da IL-13PE (200ng/dia) realizada por via intranasal, uma vez ao dia em dias alternados no período entre 21 a 27 dias após a provocação. Analisamos o componente inflamatório, a deposição de colágeno e a área de granuloma avaliados através de técnicas clássicas de histologia, incluindo coloração com H&E e Picrus-sirius, ou ainda a quantificação do conteúdo de colágeno por Sircol. Os componentes de matriz extracelular fibronectina e laminina foram avaliados através de imunohistoquímica. Citocinas e quimiocinas foram quantificadas por sistema de ELISA. As medidas de função pulmonar e resposta de hiperreatividade foram realizadas através do sistema de pletismografia de corpo inteiro invasiva. Verificamos que o tratamento curativo com a IL-13PE inibiu de forma acentuada o comprometimento da função pulmonar nos camundongos silicóticos, incluindo tanto aumento da resistência como da elastância, assim como a resposta de hiperratividade das vias aéreas ao agente broncoconstrictor metacolina. De forma coerente, os animais silicóticos quando submetidos ao tratamento com IL-13PE apresentaram marcada redução do componente inflamatório pulmonar e da resposta fibrótica, atestado pela diminuição na produção de colágeno, laminina e fibronectina e redução importante da área de granuloma. De forma semelhante, as citocinas (TNF-α e TGF-) e quimiocinas (MIP-1α, MIP-2, TARC, IP-10, MDC) detectadas em quantidade aumentada no pulmão de animais silicóticos foram reduzidas pelo tratamento com a IL-13PE. Em conclusão, nossos resultados mostram que a administração curativa da IL-13PE foi capaz de inibir os componentes inflamatórios e fibróticos da fase crônica do quadro silicótico em camundongos, o que se refletiu de forma clara na melhora da função pulmonar. Em conjunto, nossos achados indicam que a utilização da IL13PE parece constituir uma abordagem terapêutica extremamente promissora para aplicação em casos de doenças crônicas de natureza fibrótica como a silicose.