Economic analyses of options for weedy Sporobolus grass management

Weedy Sporobolus grasses have low palatability for livestock, with infestations reducing land condition and pastoral productivity. Control and containment options are available, but the cost of weed control is high relative to the extra return from livestock, thus, limiting private investment. This paper outlines a process for analysing the economic consequences of alternative management options for weedy Sporobolus grasses. This process is applicable to other weeds and other pastoral degradation or development issues. Using a case study property, three scenarios were developed. Each scenario compared two alternative management options and was analysed using discounted cash flow analysis. Two of the scenarios were based on infested properties and one scenario was based on a currently uninfested property but highly likely to become infested without active containment measures preventing weed seed transport and seedling establishment. The analysis highlighted why particular weedy Sporobolus grass management options may not be financially feasible for the landholder with the infestation. However, at the regional scale, the management options may be highly worthwhile due to a reduction in weed seed movement and new weed invasions. Therefore, to encourage investment by landholders in weedy Sporobolus grass management the investment of public money on behalf of landholders with non-infested properties should be considered.

Sustaining productivity of a Vertosol at Warra, Queensland, with fertilisers, no-tillage or legumes. 9. Production and nitrogen benefits from mixed grass and legume pastures in rotation with wheat

Reduced supplies of nitrogen (N) in many soils of southern Queensland that were cropped exhaustively with cereals over many decades have been the focus of much research to avoid declines in profitability and sustainability of farming systems. A 45-month period of mixed grass (purple pigeon grass, Setaria incrassata Stapf; Rhodes grass, Chloris gayana Kunth.) and legume (lucerne, Medicago sativa L.; annual medics, M. scutellata L. Mill. and M. truncatula Gaertn.) pasture was one of several options that were compared at a fertility-depleted Vertosol at Warra, southern Queensland, to improve grain yields or increase grain protein concentration of subsequent wheat crops. Objectives of the study were to measure the productivity of a mixed grass and legume pasture grown over 45 months (cut and removed over 36 months) and its effects on yield and protein concentrations of the following wheat crops. Pasture production (DM t/ha) and aboveground plant N yield (kg/ha) for grass, legume (including a small amount of weeds) and total components of pasture responded linearly to total rainfall over the duration of each of 3 pastures sown in 1986, 1987 and 1988. Averaged over the 3 pastures, each 100 mm of rainfall resulted in 0.52 t/ha of grass, 0.44 t/ha of legume and 0.97 t/ha of total pasture DM, there being little variation between the 3 pastures. Aboveground plant N yield of the 3 pastures ranged from 17.2 to 20.5 kg/ha per 100 mm rainfall. Aboveground legume N in response to total rainfall was similar (10.6 - 13.2 kg/ha. 100 mm rainfall) across the 3 pastures in spite of very different populations of legumes and grasses at establishment. Aboveground grass N yield was 5.2 - 7.0 kg/ha per 100mm rainfall. In most wheat crops following pasture, wheat yields were similar to that of unfertilised wheat except in 1990 and 1994, when grain yields were significantly higher but similar to that for continuous wheat fertilised with 75 kg N/ha. In contrast, grain protein concentrations of most wheat crops following pasture responded positively, being substantially higher than unfertilised wheat but similar to that of wheat fertilised with 75 kg N/ha. Grain protein averaged over all years of assay was increased by 25 - 40% compared with that of unfertilised wheat. Stored water supplies after pasture were < 134mm (< 55% of plant available water capacity); for most assay crops water storages were 67 - 110 mm, an equivalent wet soil depth of only 0.3 - 0.45 m. Thus, the crop assays of pasture benefits were limited by low water supply to wheat crops. Moreover, the severity of common root rot in wheat crop was not reduced by pasture - wheat rotation.

Enzymic synthesis of sym-homospermidine in Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) seedlings

An enzyme catalysing the synthesis of sym-homospermidine from putrescine and NAD+ with concomitant liberation of NH3 was purified 100-fold from Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) seedlings by affinity chromatography on Blue Sepharose. This thiol enzyme had an apparent mol.wt. of 75000 and exhibited Michelis-Menten kinetics with Km 3.0mM for putrescine. The same enzyme activity could also be demonstrated in the crude extracts of sandal (Santalum album) leaves, but with a specific activity 15-fold greater than that in L. sativus seedlings.

A one-tube fluorescent assay for the quarantine detection and identification of Tilletia indica and other grass bunts in wheat

A molecular assay with enhanced specificity and sensitivity has been developed to assist in the surveillance of Karnal bunt, a quarantineable disease with a significant impact on international trade. The protocol involves the release of DNA from spores, PCR amplification to enrich Tilletia-specific templates from released DNA and a five-plex, real-time PCR assay to detect, identify and distinguish T. indica and other Tilletia species (T. walkeri, T. ehrhartae, T. horrida and a group comprising T. caries, T. laevis, T. contraversa, T. bromi and T. fusca) in wheat grains. This fluorescent molecular tool has a detection sensitivity of one spore and thus bypasses the germination step, which in the current protocol is required for confirmation when only a few spores have been found in grain samples. The assay contains five dual-labelled, species-specific probes and associated species-specific primer pairs in a PCR mix in one tube. The different amplification products are detected simultaneously by five different fluorescence spectra. This specific and sensitive assay with reduced labour and reagent requirements makes it an effective and economically sustainable tool to be used in a Karnal bunt surveillance program. This protocol will also be valuable for the identification of some contaminant Tilletia sp. in wheat grains.

Development of near infrared analysis of faeces to estimate non-grass proportions in diets selected by cattle grazing tropical pastures

Grass (monocots) and non-grass (dicots) proportions in ruminant diets are important nutritionally because the non-grasses are usually higher in nutritive value, particularly protein, than the grasses, especially in tropical pastures. For ruminants grazing tropical pastures where the grasses are C-4 species and most non-grasses are C-3 species, the ratio of C-13/C-12 in diet and faeces, measured as delta C-13 parts per thousand, is proportional to dietary non-grass%. This paper describes the development of a faecal near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy calibration equation for predicting faecal delta C-13 from which dietary grass and non-grass proportions can be calculated. Calibration development used cattle faeces derived from diets containing only C-3 non-grass and C-4 grass components, and a series of expansion and validation steps was employed to develop robustness and predictive reliability. The final calibration equation contained 1637 samples and faecal delta C-13 range (parts per thousand) of [12.27]-[27.65]. Calibration statistics were: standard error of calibration (SEC) of 0.78, standard error of cross-validation (SECV) of 0.80, standard deviation (SD) of reference values of 3.11 and R-2 of 0.94. Validation statistics for the final calibration equation applied to 60 samples were: standard error of prediction (SEP) of 0.87, bias of -0.15, R-2 of 0.92 and RPD of 3.16. The calibration equation was also tested on faeces from diets containing C-4 non-grass species or temperate C-3 grass species. Faecal delta C-13 predictions indicated that the spectral basis of the calibration was not related to C-13/C-12 ratios per se but to consistent differences between grasses and non-grasses in chemical composition and that the differences were modified by photosynthetic pathway. Thus, although the calibration equation could not be used to make valid faecal delta C-13 predictions when the diet contained either C-3 grass or C-4 non-grass, it could be used to make useful estimates of dietary non-grass proportions. It could also be ut :sed to make useful estimates of non-grass in mixed C-3 grass/non-grass diets by applying a modified formula to calculate non-grass from predicted faecal delta C-13. The development of a robust faecal-NIR calibration equation for estimating non-grass proportions in the diets of grazing cattle demonstrated a novel and useful application of NIR spectroscopy in agriculture.

Grader grass (Themeda quadrivalvis): changing savannah ecosystems.

Wayne Vogler and Nikki Owen recently published their paper 'Grader grass (Themeda quadrivalvis): changing savannah ecosystems' in Proceedings of the 16th Australian Weeds Conference. Grader grass is an invasive exotic 'high biomass' grass from India that is increasing its distribution in northern Australia. It is unpalatable and can dominate ecosystems, thereby decreasing grazing animal production, degrading conservation areas and increasing fire intensity and hazard. They studied aspects of its biology at a field site in north Queensland where the initial biomass of the grass layer was found to be 70% grader grass. Grader grass also produced 80% of the seed input into this ecosystem during the first growing season. These factors, in combination with a large viable seed bank and rapid germination at the start of the wet season, demonstrate the potential of grader grass to dominate and degrade the savannah ecosystems of northern Australia.

Surveillance protocols for management of invasive plants: modelling Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana) in Australia

Aim: To develop a surveillance support model that enables prediction of areas susceptible to invasion, comparative analysis of surveillance methods and intensity and assessment of eradication feasibility. To apply the model to identify surveillance protocols for generalized invasion scenarios and for evaluating surveillance and control for a context-specific plant invasion. Location: Australia. Methods: We integrate a spatially explicit simulation model, including plant demography and dispersal vectors, within a Geographical Information System. We use the model to identify effective surveillance protocols using simulations of generalized plant life-forms spreading via different dispersal mechanisms in real landscapes. We then parameterize the surveillance support model for Chilean needle grass [CNG; Nassella neesiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth], a highly invasive tussock grass, which is an eradication target in south-eastern Queensland, Australia. Results: General surveillance protocols that can guide rapid response surveillance were identified; suitable habitat that is susceptible to invasion through particular dispersal syndromes should be targeted for surveillance using an adaptive seek-and-destroy method. The search radius of the adaptive method should be based on maximum expected dispersal distances. Protocols were used to define a surveillance strategy for CNG, but simulations indicated that despite effective and targeted surveillance, eradication is implausible at current intensities. Main conclusions: Several important surveillance protocols emerged and simulations indicated that effectiveness can be increased if they are followed in rapid response surveillance. If sufficient data are available, the surveillance support model should be parameterized to target areas susceptible to invasion and determine whether surveillance is effective and eradication is feasible. We discovered that for CNG, regardless of a carefully designed surveillance strategy, eradication is implausible at current intensities of surveillance and control and these efforts should be doubled if they are to be successful. This is crucial information in the face of environmentally and economically damaging invasive species and large, expensive and potentially ineffective control programmes.

Buffel grass in Queensland's semi-arid woodlands: response to local and landscape scale variables, and relationship with grass, forb and reptile species.

Buffel grass [Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link] has been widely introduced in the Australian rangelands as a consequence of its value for productive grazing, but tends to competitively establish in non-target areas such as remnant vegetation. In this study, we examined the influence landscape-scale and local-scale variables had upon the distribution of buffel grass in remnant poplar box (Eucalyptus populnea F. Muell.) dominant woodland fragments in the Brigalow Bioregion, Queensland. Buffel grass and variables thought to influence its distribution in the region were measured at 60 sites, which were selected based on the amount of native woodland retained in the landscape and patch size. An information-theoretic modelling approach and hierarchical partitioning revealed that the most influential variable was the percent of retained vegetation within a 1-km spatial extent. From this, we identified a critical threshold of similar to 30% retained vegetation in the landscape, above which the model predicted buffel grass was not likely to occur in a woodland fragment. Other explanatory variables in the model were site based, and included litter cover and long-term rainfall. Given the paucity of information on the effect of buffel grass upon biodiversity values, we undertook exploratory analyses to determine whether buffel grass cover influenced the distribution of grass, forb and reptile species. We detected some trends; hierarchical partitioning revealed that buffel grass cover was the most important explanatory variable describing habitat preferences of four reptile species. However, establishing causal links - particularly between native grass and forb species and buffel grass - was problematic owing to possible confounding with grazing pressure. We conclude with a set of management recommendations aimed at reducing the spread of buffel grass into remnant woodlands.

A review of current knowledge of the weedy species Themeda quadrivalvis (grader grass)

This review of grader grass (Themeda quadrivalvis) attempts to collate current knowledge and identify knowledge gaps that may require further research. Grader grass is a tropical annual grass native to India that is now spread throughout many of the tropical regions of the world. In Australia, it has spread rapidly since its introduction in the 1930s and is now naturalised in the tropical areas of Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia and extends south along the east coast to northern New South Wales. It is a vigorous grass with limited palatability, that is capable of invading native and improved pastures, cropping land and protected areas such as state and national parks. Grader grass can form dense monocultures that reduce biodiversity, decrease animal productivity and increase the fire hazard in the seasonally dry tropics. Control options are based on herbicides, grazing management and slashing, while overgrazing appears to favour grader grass. The effect of fire on grader grass is inconclusive and needs to be defined. Little is known about the biology and impacts of grader grass in agricultural and protected ecosystems in Australia. In particular, information is needed on soil seed bank longevity, seed production, germination and growth, which would allow the development of management strategies to control this weedy grass.

Seasonal changes in pasture quality and diet selection and their relationship with liveweight gain of steers grazing tropical grass and grass-legume pastures in northern Australia.

The variation in liveweight gain in grazing beef cattle as influenced by pasture type, season and year effects has important economic implications for mixed crop-livestock systems and the ability to better predict such variation would benefit beef producers by providing a guide for decision making. To identify key determinants of liveweight change of Brahman-cross steers grazing subtropical pastures, measurements of pasture quality and quantity, and diet quality in parallel with liveweight were made over two consecutive grazing seasons (48 and 46 weeks, respectively), on mixed Clitoria ternatea/grass, Stylosanthes seabrana/grass and grass swards (grass being a mixture of Bothriochloa insculpta cv. Bisset, Dichanthium sericeum and Panicum maximum var. trichoglume cv. Petrie). Steers grazing the legume-based pastures had the highest growth rate and gained between 64 and 142 kg more than those grazing the grass pastures in under 12 months. Using an exponential model, green leaf mass, green leaf %, adjusted green leaf % (adjusted for inedible woody legume stems), faecal near infrared reflectance spectroscopy predictions of diet crude protein and diet dry matter digestibility, accounted for 77, 74, 80, 63 and 60%, respectively, of the variation in daily weight gain when data were pooled across pasture types and grazing seasons. The standard error of the regressions indicated that 95% prediction intervals were large (+/- 0.42-0.64 kg/head.day) suggesting that derived regression relationships have limited practical application for accurately estimating growth rate. In this study, animal factors, especially compensatory growth effects, appeared to have a major influence on growth rate in relation to pasture and diet attributes. It was concluded that predictions of growth rate based only on pasture or diet attributes are unlikely to be accurate or reliable. Nevertheless, key pasture attributes such as green leaf mass and green leaf% provide a robust indication of what proportion of the potential growth rate of the grazing animals can be achieved.

Zoysia japonica, Zoysia Grass 'Palisades'

Open-pollination: originated as a chance seedling from Z44 (maternal clonal parent), obtained from Beltsville MD in 1981, with an unknown pollen source from a zoysia grass germplasm field nursery at the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station in Dallas. ‘Palisades’ was selected over the parent Z44 on the basis of its lower tendency to produce thatch, its excellent lateral growth habit and its superior mowing qualities. ‘Palisades’ has been vegetatively propagated, and is uniform in growth expression. No seedling establishment from ‘Palisades’ has been noticed in either greenhouse or field studies. Selection criteria: rapid regrowth and spread by, and/or from, stolons and rhizomes; turf colour and density; tolerance to low mowing; winter hardiness; shade tolerance; low water use requirements. Propagation: vegetative. Breeder: Milton C. Engelke, Dallas, USA. PBR Certificate Number 2594, Application Number 2001/199, granted 26 October 2004.

Cynodon dactylon, Green Couch Grass 'Oz-E-Green'

Spontaneous mutation or chance seedling: discovered in 2001 as a superior plant growing among “Common” green couch on the breeder’s turf farm at Berries Road, Childers. A selected piece of sod was removed and broken into vegetative sprigs to propagate a larger area of this variety elsewhere on the breeder’s property. The original plant has now been multiplied vegetatively three times without showing any discernible off types. Selection criteria: dense prostrate habit and limited inflorescence production (giving a low mowing requirement), high turf quality, dark green colour. Propagation: vegetative. Breeder: Robert William Morrow, Childers, QLD. PBR Certificate Number 2844, Application Number 2004/035, granted 22 August 2005.

Stenotaphrum secundatum, Buffalo Grass 'Sir James'

Spontaneous mutation: discovered in February 2001 as a superior plant growing among “Common” buffalo grass growing on the breeder’s property at Saltash in the Hunter Valley (NSW). The selected material has smaller (finer) leaves and showed better growth and colour than the parent variety with minimal inputs (water, fertiliser) under stressful climatic conditions. Subsequently, it also showed better leaf colour retention than the parent variety during winter. A vegetative plug taken from the original plant has now undergone four subsequent vegetative divisions to expand the original material for performance trials in NSW and Queensland without showing any discernible off types. Main selection criteria: winter colour retention, small leaves, low fertiliser requirement. Propagation: vegetative. Breeder: Brent Redman, Maitland North, NSW. PBR Certificate Number 2715, Application Number 2002/283, granted 18 March 2005.

Stenotaphrum secundatum, Buffalo Grass 'TF01'

‘TF01’ was selected by the breeder, John Powell, as an isolated and distinctive plant of buffalo grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum) growing among kikuyu grass on the banks of the Bellinger River along its tidal reaches where it was occasionally inundated by brackish water during king tides. It showed shorter internodes than existing buffalo grass varieties of comparable texture within the breeder’s knowledge, and showed good colour retention during periods of drought. Initially designated ‘TF01’, the buffalo grass cultivar was trialled for turf adaptation by Turf Force on their Beaudesert turf farm and characterised in a national buffalo grass project coordinated by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Turf Research group initiated in 2005. PBR Certificate Number 3624, Application Number 2007/245, granted 25 September 2008.

Chloris gayana, Rhodes Grass 'KP4'

‘KP4’ is based on selected F4 progeny of 8 plants showing a low, creeping, tight-matted, late flowering growth habit. The original parental breeding population was selected from among 1600 diploid Rhodes grass seedlings grown as spaced plants; seven of the selected parental plants were from ‘Katambora’ and the eighth (which did not contribute as a maternal parent beyond the F1 generation) was a seedling from an unreleased accession. Four (4) cycles of mass selection were conducted, in which the selected plants from the previous generation were allowed to inter-cross in isolation in the field, and the resultant progeny later grown as spaced plants in the field for the next cycle of selection. Selection was for the following attributes: prostrate creeping early growth habit with short stolon internodes resulting in a dense stolon mat; leafy appearance; fine leaf and stem; and late flowering (i.e. a long period of vegetative growth before flowering). ‘KP4’ is a synthetic Rhodes grass cultivar multiplied from the selected fourth-generation plants produced by this line of breeding. Breeder: Donald S. Loch, Cleveland, QLD. PBR Certificate Number 3661, Application Number 2006/189, granted 16 December 2008