Imunossensores à base de filmes nanoestruturados de fibroína da seda - peptídeo antigênico NS5A-1-vanadato de ítrio: európio para detecção de Hepatite C

Pós-graduação em Química - IQ

Desenvolvimento de imunossensor baseado na imobilização de anticorpo monoclonal em fibroína da seda para diagnóstico rápido da cisticercose bovina

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Characterization of yolk sac proteins of Bos indicus cattle embryos

The yolk sac is an embryonic membrane that is essential for the embryo's initial survival in many mammals. It also plays an important role in the production of proteins necessary for development. We studied proteins of the yolk sac in bovine embryos at up to 40 days of gestation. We examined the yolk sac of 17 bovine embryos at different gestational periods, measuring a-fetoprotein, alpha-1-antitrypsin, and transferrin. This experiment was carried out by Western blot technique, associated with electrophoresis on a 6% sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel. Mouse monoclonal antibody anti-human-alpha-fetoprotein, mouse antibody anti-human-transferrin and rabbit polyclonal anti-human-alpha-1-antitrypsin were used as primary antibodies, and conjugated peroxidase as a secondary antibody. We detected the three proteins in some of the yolk sac samples; however, the bands in some specimens (samples) were weak, maybe a result of poor antigen-antibody reaction, since the antibodies used in this study were not specific to bovine proteins. The fact that weak bands appeared might be due to a weak cross-reaction.

Nano- und mikrostrukturierte organische Erkennungsstrukturen in Lipidmembranen

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden zunächst die ausgewählten Lipide anhand ihrer p-ArnIsothermen charakterisiert. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die flüssiganaloge Phase umso ausgeprägter ist, je größer die hydrophile Kopfgruppe des jeweiligen Lipids ist, so dass diese schon bei sehr großen Flächen miteinander wechselwirken. Außerdem wurde das Mischungsverhalten und die Domänenbildung binärer und ternärer Mischungen untersucht.rnDabei konnte im Fall der binären Mischungen der polymerisierbaren Lipide 1 und 2 mit dem perfluorierten Lipid 3 eine Phasenseparation beobachtet werden. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass sowohl die Form als auch die Größe der Domänen durch zwei Faktoren kontrolliert werden konnte, nämlich zum einen durch den Lateraldruck und zum anderen durch die molare Zusammensetzung der binären Mischung. Bei niedrigen Lateraldrücken (10 mN/m) warenrnfluorierte und nichtfluorierte Lipide in der homogenen flüssiganalogen Phase vollständig mischbar. Bei sehr hohen Lateraldrücken (30 mN/m) lag eine nahezu vollständige Entmischung vor, da das Lipid 1 hier schon vollständig auskristallisiert war. Im Fall der binären Mischung 2/3 konnte ein solches Verhalten nicht beobachtet werden, was an dem Phasenverhalten des Lipids 2 liegt. Aber auch hier lies sich die Domänenbildung sowohl überrnden Lateraldruck als auch über die Komposition der binären Mischung kontrollieren. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Monoschichten dieser beiden binären Mischungen durch photochemische Polymerisation stabilisiert werden können.rnDer Einfluss des Fluorierungsgrades auf das Phasenseparationsverhalten wurde anhand der binären Mischungen 1/6 und 1/8 untersucht. Es zeigte sich hier, dass sich auch hier in beiden Fällen die Domänenbildung sowohl über den Lateraldruck als auch über die Komposiion der Mischung steuern lies. Ein Vergleich der gefundenen Strukturen belegte darüber hinaus klare Unterschiede zwischen dem fluorierten und teilfluorierten Lipid. Denn in der binären Mischung 1/8 (perfluoriertes Lipid) konnte die hexagonale Grundstruktur, die zuvor schon inrnder binären Mischung 1/3 gefunden wurde, beobachtet werden. Demgegenüber hatten die kristallinen Domänen, die in der binären Mischung 1/6 (teilfluoriertes Lipid) beobachtet wurden, die hexagonale Grundform verloren. Hier wurden rundliche unförmige Domänen gefunden, die zudem deutlich kleiner waren als die bei der Mischung mit dem perfluorierten Lipid gefundenen Domänen. In den ternären Mischungen zeigte sich, dass diese ternären Mischungen eine ähnliche Phasenseparation zeigten wie die binäre Mischung 1/3. Die hier auftretenden kristallanalogen Domänen bestanden aus Lipid 1, wobei die umgebendernflüssiganaloge Matrix die beiden fluorierten Lipide enthielt. Deswegen war es von besonderer Bedeutung wie sich die beiden fluorierten Verbindungen untereinander verhalten würden.rnDazu wurden die p-A Isothermen der binären Mischung 3/5 ausgewertet und dabei zeigte sich, dass sich das Vakzinlipid, sofern der Anteil nicht höher ist als der des fluorierten Matrixlipides, in idealer Weise mit diesem mischt. Eine Untersuchung der Antigen-Antikörper Erkennung der binären Mischungen 3/5 zeigte, dass die Reaktion mit dem Antikörper umso effektiver war, je größer der Anteil des Vakzinlipids 5 war. Allerdings konnte hier kein linearer Zusammenhang gefunden werden. Stattdessen handelte es sich umrneine Sättigungskurve, da bereits ein Anteil an Lipid 5 von 42,2 mol% eine nur geringfügig schwächere Antikörperanbindung zeigte, als das reine Vakzinlipid.

Synthese von selbstaggregierenden Glycopeptidkonjugaten mit (per)fluorierten Membranankern

Für eine effektive Erkennung tumorassoziierter Kohlenhydratantigene durch das Immun-system in der Krebs¬immuntherapie ist eine multivalente Präsentation der Haptene notwendig. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein neuer Zugang zu einer solch räumlichen Konzentration der Haptene untersucht, indem MUC1-Antigene mit perfluorierten Alkylketten funktionalisiert und in einer geeigneten Lipidmatrix entmischt wurden. Perfluoralkyl-Amphiphile zeichnen sich durch eine hohe Entmischungstendenz in Alkyllipiden aus und bewirken dadurch eine Anreicherung der Erkennungsstrukturen (Haptene) in Analogie zu den natürlichen raft-Domänen auf der Zelloberfläche.rnDazu wurden zunächst verschiedene Membranankersysteme mit unterschiedlichem Fluorierungsgrad entwickelt. Beispielsweise konnte ausgehend von einem zentralen Glycerin-fragment ein Membrananker mit zwei Perfluoralkylketten hergestellt werden. Letztere wurden mittels radikalischer Perfluoralkylierung eingeführt, wobei der Fluorgehalt der Verbindung über die Kettenlänge gesteuert wurde. Daneben konnte ein weiteres Ankersystem, basierend auf der Aminosäure Lysin, synthetisiert werden, dass einen bequemen Einbau der Perfluoralkylketten durch Peptidkupplungen von entsprechenden perfluorierten Aminen bzw. perfluorierten Carbonsäuren erlaubte. In diesem Fall wurde der Fluorgehalt durch die Einführung von Alkyl- bzw. Perfluoralkylketten verändert.rnBeide Systeme konnten für erste Untersuchungen ihres Phasenverhaltens mit polaren Kopf-gruppen ausgestattet werden, wobei neben einem hydrophilen, nicht-immunogenen Triethylenglycolspacer vor allem ein TN-Antigen tragendes Dipeptid zum Einsatz kam. In Gegenwart des Matrixlipids DODAMA konnten in Langmuir-Blodgett-Untersuchungen mit diesen Verbindungen eine Entmischung und die Ausbildung mikroseparierter Bereiche nachgewiesen werden. Auch war es möglich, durch Anbindung eines Fluoreszenzfarbstoffes zu zeigen, dass solche amphiphilen Membrananker auf perfluorierten Oberflächen effektiv und dauerhaft immobilisiert werden können. Damit eröffnet diese Verbindungsklasse interessante Anwendungsmöglichkeiten in der Entwicklung von diagnostischen Microarray-Formaten.rnUm eine Anbindung der fluorierten Membrananker an den N-Terminus eines an fester Phase aufgebauten mucinanalogen Glycopeptids als antigene Einheit zu ermöglichen, wurde ein entsprechendes Ankersystem auf Basis von Glutaminsäure entwickelt. Dabei wurden an diese Verbindung neben dem TN-Antigen noch weitere komplexe tumorassoziierte Kohlenhydrat-antigene des Mucintyps angebunden, wobei der Aufbau der resultierenden amphiphilen Glycolipopeptide vollständig an der festen Phase gelang. Insgesamt konnten so mithilfe des teilfluorierten Lysinankers und des zweifach perfluorierten Glutaminsäureankers erste amphiphile Glycopeptid-Konjugate hergestellt werden, deren antigene Kopfgruppe aus einer 20 Aminosäuren umfassenden Wiederholungseinheit des Mucins MUC1 mit TN-, T- bzw. STN-Antigen-Seitenkette besteht. Derartige Verbindungen stellen reizvolle Bausteine für die Tumordiagnostik und für die Entwicklung von stabilen liposomalen Tumorvakzinen dar, da die verwendeten Perfluoralkylanker die Antigenpräsentation nicht wesentlich beeinflussen und die Bindung des Antikörpers nicht behindern. rn

Intraperitoneal Echinococcus multilocularis infection in C57BL/6 mice affects CD40 and B7 costimulator expression on peritoneal macrophages and impairs peritoneal T cell activation

One of the most important immunopathological consequence of intraperitoneal alveolar echinococcosis (AE) in the mouse is suppression of T cell-mediated immune responses. We investigated whether and how intraperitoneal macrophages (MØs) are, respectively, implicated as antigen-presenting cells (APCs). In a first step we showed that peritoneal MØs from infected mice (AE-MØs) exhibited a reduced ability to present a conventional antigen (chicken ovalbumin, C-Ova) to specific responder lymph node T cells. In a subsequent step, AE-MØs as well as naïve MØs (positive control) proved their ability to uptake and process C-Ova fluorescein isthiocyanate (FITC). Furthermore, in comparison with naïve MØs, the surface expression of Ia molecules was up-regulated on AE-MØs at the early stage of infection, suggesting that AE-MØs provide the first signal via the antigen-Ia complex. To study the accessory activity of MØs, AE-MØs obtained at the early and late stages of infection were found to decrease Con A-induced proliferation of peritoneal naïve T cells as well as of AE-sensitized peritoneal T cells, in contrast to stimulation with naïve MØs. The status of accessory molecules was assessed by analysing the expression level of costimulatory molecules on AE-MØs, with naïve MØs as controls. It was found that B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86) expression remained unchanged, whereas CD40 was down-regulated and CD54 (= ICAM-1) was slightly up-regulated. In a leucocyte reaction of AE-MØs with naïve or AE-T cells, both types of T cells increased their proliferative response when CD28 - the ligand of B7 receptors - was exposed to anti-CD28 in cultures. Conversely to naïve MØs, pulsing of AE-MØs with agonistic anti-CD40 did not even partially restore their costimulatory activity and failed to increase naïve or AE-T cell proliferation. Neutralizing anti-B7-1, in combination with anti-B7-2, reduced naïve and AE-T cell proliferation, whereas anti-CD40 treatment of naïve MØs increased their proliferative response to Con A. These results point at the key role of B7 receptors as accessory molecules and the necessity of the integrity of CD40-expression by naïve MØs to improve their accessory activity. Taken together, the obstructed presenting-activity of AE-MØs appeared to trigger an unresponsiveness of T cells, contributing to the suppression of their clonal expansion during the chronic phase of AE-infection.

Molecular survival strategies of Echinococcus multilocularis in the murine host

Larval infection with Echinococcus multilocularis starts with the intrahepatic postoncospheral development of a metacestode that-at its mature stage-consists of an inner germinal and an outer laminated layer (GL ; LL). In certain cases, an appropriate host immune response may inhibit parasite proliferation. Several lines of evidence obtained in vivo and in vitro indicate the important bio-protective role of the LL. For instance, the LL has been proposed to protect the GL from nitric oxide produced by periparasitic macrophages and dendritic cells, and also to prevent immune recognition by surrounding T cells. On the other hand, the high periparasitic NO production by peritoneal exsudate cells contributes to periparasitic immunosuppression, explaining why iNOS deficienct mice exhibit a significantly lower susceptibility towards experimental infection. The intense periparasitic granulomatous infiltration indicates a strong host-parasite interaction, and the involvement of cellular immunity in control of the metacestode growth kinetics is strongly suggested by experiments carried out in T cell deficient mouse strains. Carbohydrate components of the LL, such as Em2(G11) and Em492, as well as other parasite metabolites yield immunomodulatory effects that allow the parasite to survive in the host. I.e., the IgG response to the Em2(G11)-antigen takes place independently of alpha-beta+CD4+T cells, and in the absence of interactions between CD40 and CD40 ligand. Such parasite molecules also interfere with antigen presentation and cell activation, leading to a mixed Th1/Th2-type response at the later stage of infection. Furthermore, Em492 and other (not yet published) purified parasite metabolites suppress ConA and antigen-stimulated splenocyte proliferation. Infected mouse macrophages (AE-MØ) as antigen presenting cells (APC) exhibited a reduced ability to present a conventional antigen (chicken ovalbumin, C-Ova) to specific responder lymph node T cells when compared to normal MØ. As AE-MØ fully maintain their capacity to appropriately process antigens, a failure in T cell receptor occupancy by antigen-Ia complex or/and altered co-stimulatory signals can be excluded. Studying the status of accessory molecules implicated in T cell stimulation by MØ, it could be shown that B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86) remained unchanged, whereas CD40 was down-regulated and CD54 (=ICAM-1) slightly up-regulated. FACS analysis of peritoneal cells revealed a decrease in the percentage of CD4+ and CD8+T cells in AE-infected mice. Taken together the obstructed presenting-activity of AE-MØ appeared to trigger an unresponsiveness of T cells leading to the suppression of their clonal expansion during the chronic phase of AE infection. Interesting information on the parasite survival strategy and potential can be obtained upon in vitro and in vivo treatment. Hence, we provided very innovative results by showing that nitazoxanide, and now also, respectively, new modified compounds may represent a useful alternative to albendazole. In the context of chemotherapeutical repression of parasite growth, we searched also for parasite molecules, whose expression levels correlate with the viability and growth activity of E. multilocularis metacestode. Expression levels of 14-3-3 and II/3-10, relatively quantified by realtime reverse transcription-PCR using a housekeeping gene beta-actin, were studied in permissive nu/nu and in low-permissive wild type BALB/c mice. At 2 months p.i., the transcription level of 14-3-3 was significantly higher in parasites actively proliferating in nu/nu mice compared to parasites moderately growing in wild type mice. Immunoblotting experiments confirmed at the protein level that 14-3-3 was over-expressed in parasites derived from nu/nu mice at 2 months p.i. In vitro-treatment of E. multilocularis with an anti-echinococcal drug nitazoxanide for a period of 8 days resulted in a significant decrease of both 14-3-3 and II/3-10 transcription levels,

Persistence of circulating ADAMTS13-specific immune complexes in patients with acquired thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

Anti-ADAMTS13 autoantibodies are the main cause of acquired thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Binding of these antibodies to ADAMTS13 eventually results in the formation of antigen-antibody immune complexes. Circulating ADAMTS13-specific immune complexes have been described in acquired thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura patients, however, the prevalence and persistence of these immune complexes over time has hitherto remained elusive. Here, we analyzed a large cohort of patients with acquired thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura for the presence of free and complexed anti-ADAMTS13 antibodies. In the acute phase (n=68), 100% of patients had free IgG antibodies and 97% had ADAMTS13-specific immune complexes. In remission (n=28), 75% of patients had free antibodies (mainly IgG) and 93% had ADAMTS13-specific immune complexes. Free antibodies were mainly of subclasses IgG1 and IgG4, whereas IgG4 was by far the most prevalent in ADAMTS13-specific immune complexes. Comparison of ADAMTS13 inhibitor and anti-ADAMTS13 IgG (total and subclasses) antibody titers in acute phase and in remission samples showed a statistically significant decrease in all parameters in remission. Although non-significant, a trend towards reduced or undetectable titers in remission was also observed for ADAMTS13-specific immune complexes of subclasses IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3. For IgG4, no such trend was discernible; IgG4 immune complexes persisted over years, even in patients who had been treated with rituximab and who showed no features suggesting relapse.

Role of FbpA and FbpB in the pathogenesis and mycolyltransferase activity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis infects more people worldwide each year than any other single organism. The Antigen 85 Complex, a family of fibronectin-binding proteins (Fbps) found in several species of mycobacteria and possibly involved in host interaction, is considered among the putative virulence factors of M. tuberculosis. These proteins are implicated in the production of trehalose dimycolate (TDM) and arabinogalactan-mycolate (AG-M), two prominent components of the mycobacterium cell wall and potent modulators of the immune system during infection. For these reasons, the principal members of the complex, FbpA and FbpB, were the focus of these studies. The genes encoding these proteins, fbpA and fbpB, were each disrupted by insertion of a kanamycin resistance cassette in a pathogenic strain of M. tuberculosis, H37Rv. Neither mutation affected growth in routine broth culture. Thin layer chromatography analysis of TDM and AG-M showed no difference in content between the parent strain H37Rv and the FbpA- and FbpB-deficient mutants grown under two different culture conditions. However, metabolic radiolabeling of the strains showed that the production of TDM (but not its precursor TMM) was delayed in the FbpA- and FbpB-deficient mutants compared to the parent H37Rv. During this same labeling period, FbpA-deficient mutant LAa1 failed to produce AG-M and in the FpbB-deficient mutant LAb1 production was decreased. In macrophage tissue culture assay, LAa1 failed to multiply when bacteria in early log phase were used to infect monolayers while LAb1 grew like the parent strain. The growth deficiency of LAa1 as well as the deficiencies in TDM and AG-M production were restored by complementing LAa1 with a functional fbpA gene. These results suggest that the FbpA and FbpB proteins are involved in synthesis of TDM (but not its precursor TMM) as well as AG-M. Other members of the complex appear to compensate for defects in synthesis caused by mutation of single genes in the complex over time. Mutation of the FbpA gene causes greater in vivo effect than mutation of the FbpB gene despite very similar deficiencies in the rate of production of mycolate containing molecules on the cell surface. ^

Role of T cell response during vaccine immunity to tuberculosis

Tuberculosis remains one of the leading causes of death in man due to a single infectious agent. An estimated one-third of the world's population is infected with the causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), despite the availability of the widely used vaccine, BCG. BCG has significantly varying protection rates with the lowest level of protection seen with the most common form of TB, adult pulmonary TB. Thus, numerous studies are being conducted to develop a more efficient vaccine. The ideal candidate vaccine would possess the ability to induce a solid and strong Th1 response, as this is the subset of T cells primarily involved in clearance of the infection. A novel vaccine should also induce such a response that may be recalled and expanded upon subsequent infection. Our group has introduced a mutant of a virulent strain of Mtb which lacks a component of the immunogenic antigen 85 complex (Ag85). Our vaccine, ΔfbpA, does not secrete the fibronectin binding protein Ag85A, and this has shown to lead to its attenuation in both murine macrophages and mice. Previous studies have also proven that ΔfbpA is more protective in mice than BCG against virulent aerosol challenge with Mtb. This study addresses the mechanisms of protection observed with ΔfbpA by phenotyping responding T cells. We first evaluated the ability of dendritic cells to present the mycobacteria to naïve T cells, an in vitro mock of primary immunization. We also measured the response of primed T cells to macrophage-presented mycobacteria to interpret the possible response of a vaccinated host to a boost. We concluded that ΔfbpA can elicit a stronger Th1 response compared to BCG in vitro, and further observed that this enhanced response is at least partly due to the presence of proteins encoded by a region of the genome absent in all strains of BCG. Finally, we observed this heightened Th1 response in the mouse model after primary vaccination and a virulent aerosol challenge. The cytolytic T cell response was also measured after virulent challenge and was found to be superior in the ΔfbpA-treated group when compared to the BCG group. ^

Biomolecular interaction analysis of gestrinone-anti-gestrinone using arrays of high aspect ratio SU-8 nanopillars

In this paper, label-free biosensing for antibody screening by periodic lattices of high-aspect ratio SU-8 nano-pillars (BICELLs) is presented. As a demonstration, the determination of anti-gestrinone antibodies from whole rabbit serum is carried out, and for the first time, the dissociation constant (KD = 6 nM) of antigen-antibody recognition process is calculated using this sensing system. After gestrinone antigen immobilization on the BICELLs, the immunorecognition was performed. The cells were interrogated vertically by using micron spot size Fourier transform visible and IR spectrometry (FT-VIS-IR), and the dip wavenumber shift was monitored. The biosensing assay exhibited good reproducibility and sensitivity (LOD = 0.75 ng/mL).

A general strategy for producing conditional alleles of Src-like tyrosine kinases.

The Src-like tyrosine kinases require membrane localization for transformation and probably for their normal role in signal transduction. We utilized this characteristic to prepare Src-like tyrosine kinases that can be readily activated with the rationally designed chemical inducer of dimerization FK1012. Dimerization of cytoplasmic Src-like tyrosine kinases was not sufficient for signaling, but their recruitment to the plasma membrane led to the rapid activation of transcription factors identical to those regulated by crosslinking the antigen receptor. Moreover, recruitment of activated Src-like kinases to the membrane replaced signaling by the T-lymphocyte antigen receptor complex, leading to the activation of both the Ras/protein kinase C and Ca2+/calcineurin pathways normally activated by antigen receptor signaling. Since these chemical inducers of dimerization are cell permeable, this approach permits the production of conditional alleles of any of the Src-like tyrosine kinases, thereby allowing a delineation of their developmental roles.

Normal development and function of natural killer cells in CD3 epsilon delta 5/delta 5 mutant mice.

The CD3 epsilon polypeptide contributes to the cell surface display as well as to the signal transduction properties of the T-cell antigen receptor complex. Intriguingly, the distribution of CD3 epsilon is not restricted to T cells, since activated mouse, human, and avian natural killer (NK) cells do express intracytoplasmic CD3 epsilon polypeptides. CD3 epsilon is also present in the cytoplasm of fetal thymic T/NK bipotential progenitor cells, suggesting that it constitutes a component of the NK differentiation program. We report here that the genetic disruption of CD3 epsilon exon 5 alters neither NK cell development nor in vitro and in vivo NK functions, although it profoundly blocked T-cell development. These results support the notion that CD3 epsilon is dispensable for mouse NK cell ontogeny and function and further suggest that the common NK/T-cell progenitor cell utilizes CD3 epsilon as a mandatory component only when differentiating toward the T-cell lineage.

Enzyme Electrochemistry - Biocatalysis on an electrode

Oxidoreductase enzymes catalyze single- or multi-electron reduction/oxidation reactions of small molecule inorganic or organic substrates, and they are integral to a wide variety of biological processes including respiration, energy production, biosynthesis, metabolism, and detoxification. All redox enzymes require a natural redox partner such as an electron-transfer protein ( e. g. cytochrome, ferredoxin, flavoprotein) or a small molecule cosubstrate ( e. g. NAD(P)H, dioxygen) to sustain catalysis, in effect to balance the substrate/product redox half-reaction. In principle, the natural electron-transfer partner may be replaced by an electrochemical working electrode. One of the great strengths of this approach is that the rate of catalysis ( equivalent to the observed electrochemical current) may be probed as a function of applied potential through linear sweep and cyclic voltammetry, and insight to the overall catalytic mechanism may be gained by a systematic electrochemical study coupled with theoretical analysis. In this review, the various approaches to enzyme electrochemistry will be discussed, including direct and indirect ( mediated) experiments, and a brief coverage of the theory relevant to these techniques will be presented. The importance of immobilizing enzymes on the electrode surface will be presented and the variety of ways that this may be done will be reviewed. The importance of chemical modification of the electrode surface in ensuring an environment conducive to a stable and active enzyme capable of functioning natively will be illustrated. Fundamental research into electrochemically driven enzyme catalysis has led to some remarkable practical applications. The glucose oxidase enzyme electrode is a spectacularly successful application of enzyme electrochemistry. Biosensors based on this technology are used worldwide by sufferers of diabetes to provide rapid and accurate analysis of blood glucose concentrations. Other applications of enzyme electrochemistry are in the sensing of macromolecular complexation events such as antigen - antibody binding and DNA hybridization. The review will include a selection of enzymes that have been successfully investigated by electrochemistry and, where appropriate, discuss their development towards practical biotechnological applications.

Interpretation of the temperature dependence of equilibrium and rate constants

The objective of this review is to draw attention to potential pitfalls in attempts to glean mechanistic information from the magnitudes of standard enthalpies and entropies derived from the temperature dependence of equilibrium and rate constants for protein interactions. Problems arise because the minimalist model that suffices to describe the energy differences between initial and final states usually comprises a set of linked equilibria, each of which is characterized by its own energetics. For example, because the overall standard enthalpy is a composite of those individual values, a positive magnitude for AHO can still arise despite all reactions within the subset being characterized by negative enthalpy changes: designation of the reaction as being entropy driven is thus equivocal. An experimenter must always bear in mind the fact that any mechanistic interpretation of the magnitudes of thermodynamic parameters refers to the reaction model rather than the experimental system For the same reason there is little point in subjecting the temperature dependence of rate constants for protein interactions to transition-state analysis. If comparisons with reported values of standard enthalpy and entropy of activation are needed, they are readily calculated from the empirical Arrhenius parameters. Copyright (c) 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.