Does food insecurity contribute to socioeconomic inequalities in BMI?

Introduction: Food insecurity is a social determinant of health and is defined as limited ability to access sufficient amounts of nutritionally adequate or safe food for a healthy and active life. Food insecurity is associated with poor health status and the exacerbation of other health inequalities. This study examined whether an association existed between 1) socioeconomic position (SEP) and food insecurity and 2) food insecurity and weight status. Methods: Data from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey was analysed. A random sample of households (n = 13 858) were asked about dietary habits and food choices. Information about gender, age, BMI, waist circumference, household income and whether the household had run out of money to purchase food in the previous 12 months was obtained and analysed using chi-square and logistic regression. Results: Income was significantly associated with food insecurity; households with lower income were at higher risk of food insecurity. Lower income males were nine times more likely to experience food insecurity and lower income females were three times more likely to experience food insecurity than their higher income counterparts. Food insecurity was significantly associated with body mass index (BMI) among women but not men. Women experiencing food insecurity were at higher risk of overweight/obesity according to BMI and waist circumference measures. Conclusion: Evidence suggests that low income households are at higher risk of food insecurity and women who are food insecure are at higher risk of being overweight or obese. Food insecurity may mediate the association between SEP and BMI.

A Process and Outcome Evaluation of the Under the Limit (UTL) Therapeutic Drink Driving Program for Recidivist and High Range Offenders

Drink driving is a major public health issue and this report examines the experiences of convicted offenders who participated in an established drink driving rehabilitation program Under the Limit (UTL). Course completers were surveyed at least three months after they had finished the 11-week UTL course. The aim of this study was to examine whether the UTL program reduced the level of alcohol consumption either directly as a result of participation in the UTL drink driving program or through increased use of community alcohol program by participants. The research involved a self-report outcome evaluation to determine whether the self-reported levels of alcohol use after the course had changed from the initial alcohol use reported by offenders. The findings are based on the responses of 30 drink-driving offenders who had completed the UTL program (response rate: 20%). While a process evaluation was proposed in the initial application, the low response rate meant that this follow up research was not feasible. The response rate was low for two reasons, it was difficult to: recruit participants who consented to follow up, and subsequently locate and survey those who had consented to involvement.

Identification and evaluation of service bundles for governmental one-stop portals

Recent advances in the area of ‘Transformational Government’ position the citizen at the centre of focus. This paradigm shift from a department-centric to a citizen-centric focus requires governments to re-think their approach to service delivery, thereby decreasing costs and increasing citizen satisfaction. The introduction of franchises as a virtual business layer between the departments and their citizens is intended to provide a solution. Franchises are structured to address the needs of citizens independent of internal departmental structures. For delivering services online, governments pursue the development of a One-Stop Portal, which structures information and services through those franchises. Thus, each franchise can be mapped to a specific service bundle, which groups together services that are deemed to be of relevance to a specific citizen need. This study focuses on the development and evaluation of these service bundles. In particular, two research questions guide the line of investigation of this study: Research Question 1): What methods can be used by governments to identify service bundles as part of governmental One-Stop Portals? Research Question 2): How can the quality of service bundles in governmental One-Stop Portals be evaluated? The first research question asks about the identification of suitable service bundle identification methods. A literature review was conducted, to, initially, conceptualise the service bundling task, in general. As a consequence, a 4-layer model of service bundling and a morphological box were created, detailing characteristics that are of relevance when identifying service bundles. Furthermore, a literature review of Decision-Support Systems was conducted to identify approaches of relevance in different bundling scenarios. These initial findings were complemented by targeted studies of multiple leading governments in the e-government domain, as well as with a local expert in the field. Here, the aim was to identify the current status of online service delivery and service bundling in practice. These findings led to the conceptualising of two service bundle identification methods, applicable in the context of Queensland Government: On the one hand, a provider-driven approach, based on service description languages, attributes, and relationships between services was conceptualised. As well, a citizen-driven approach, based on analysing the outcomes from content identification and grouping workshops with citizens, was also conceptualised. Both methods were then applied and evaluated in practice. The conceptualisation of the provider-driven method for service bundling required the initial specification of relevant attributes that could be used to identify similarities between services called relationships; these relationships then formed the basis for the identification of service bundles. This study conceptualised and defined seven relationships, namely ‘Co-location’, ‘Resource’, ‘Co-occurrence’, ‘Event’, ‘Consumer’, ‘Provider’, and ‘Type’. The relationships, and the bundling method itself, were applied and refined as part of six Action Research cycles in collaboration with the Queensland Government. The findings show that attributes and relationships can be used effectively as a means for bundle identification, if distinct decision rules are in place to prescribe how services are to be identified. For the conceptualisation of the citizen-driven method, insights from the case studies led to the decision to involve citizens, through card sorting activities. Based on an initial list of services, relevant for a certain franchise, participating citizens grouped services according to their liking. The card sorting activity, as well as the required analysis and aggregation of the individual card sorting results, was analysed in depth as part of this study. A framework was developed that can be used as a decision-support tool to assist with the decision of what card sorting analysis method should be utilised in a given scenario. The characteristic features associated with card sorting in a government context led to the decision to utilise statistical analysis approaches, such as cluster analysis and factor analysis, to aggregate card sorting results. The second research question asks how the quality of service bundles can be assessed. An extensive literature review was conducted focussing on bundle, portal, and e-service quality. It was found that different studies use different constructs, terminology, and units of analysis, which makes comparing these models a difficult task. As a direct result, a framework was conceptualised, that can be used to position past and future studies in this research domain. Complementing the literature review, interviews conducted as part of the case studies with leaders in e-government, indicated that, typically, satisfaction is evaluated for the overall portal once the portal is online, but quality tests are not conducted during the development phase. Consequently, a research model which appropriately defines perceived service bundle quality would need to be developed from scratch. Based on existing theory, such as Theory of Reasoned Action, Expectation Confirmation Theory, and Theory of Affordances, perceived service bundle quality was defined as an inferential belief. Perceived service bundle quality was positioned within the nomological net of services. Based on the literature analysis on quality, and on the subsequent work of a focus group, the hypothesised antecedents (descriptive beliefs) of the construct and the associated question items were defined and the research model conceptualised. The model was then tested, refined, and finally validated during six Action Research cycles. Results show no significant difference in higher quality or higher satisfaction among users for either the provider-driven method or for the citizen-driven method. The decision on which method to choose, it was found, should be based on contextual factors, such as objectives, resources, and the need for visibility. The constructs of the bundle quality model were examined. While the quality of bundles identified through the citizen-centric approach could be explained through the constructs ‘Navigation’, ‘Ease of Understanding’, and ‘Organisation’, bundles identified through the provider-driven approach could be explained solely through the constructs ‘Navigation’ and ‘Ease of Understanding’. An active labelling style for bundles, as part of the provider-driven Information Architecture, had a larger impact on ‘Quality’ than the topical labelling style used in the citizen-centric Information Architecture. However, ‘Organisation’, reflecting the internal, logical structure of the Information Architecture, was a significant factor impacting on ‘Quality’ only in the citizen-driven Information Architecture. Hence, it was concluded that active labelling can compensate for a lack of logical structure. Further studies are needed to further test this conjecture. Such studies may involve building alternative models and conducting additional empirical research (e.g. use of an active labelling style for the citizen-driven Information Architecture). This thesis contributes to the body of knowledge in several ways. Firstly, it presents an empirically validated model of the factors explaining and predicting a citizen’s perception of service bundle quality. Secondly, it provides two alternative methods that can be used by governments to identify service bundles in structuring the content of a One-Stop Portal. Thirdly, this thesis provides a detailed narrative to suggest how the recent paradigm shift in the public domain, towards a citizen-centric focus, can be pursued by governments; the research methodology followed by this study can serve as an exemplar for governments seeking to achieve a citizen-centric approach to service delivery.

Nutritional status of Ugandan women living with HIV/AIDS : anthropometry and body composition assessment

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that leads to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDs) reduces immune function, resulting in opportunistic infections and later death. Use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) increases chances of survival, however, with some concerns regarding fat re-distribution (lipodystrophy) which may encompass subcutaneous fat loss (lipoatrophy) and/or fat accumulation (lipohypertrophy), in the same individual. This problem has been linked to Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), majorly, in the class of protease inhibitors (PIs), in addition to older age and being female. An additional concern is that the problem exists together with the metabolic syndrome, even when nutritional status/ body composition, and lipodystrophy/metabolic syndrome are unclear in Uganda where the use of ARVs is on the increase. In line with the literature, the overall aim of the study was to assess physical characteristics of HIV-infected patients using a comprehensive anthropometric protocol and to predict body composition based on these measurements and other standardised techniques. The other aim was to establish the existence of lipodystrophy, the metabolic syndrome, andassociated risk factors. Thus, three studies were conducted on 211 (88 ART-naïve) HIV-infected, 15-49 year-old women, using a cross-sectional approach, together with a qualitative study of secondary information on patient HIV and medication status. In addition, face-to-face interviews were used to extract information concerning morphological experiences and life style. The study revealed that participants were on average 34.1±7.65 years old, had lived 4.63±4.78 years with HIV infection and had spent 2.8±1.9 years receiving ARVs. Only 8.1% of participants were receiving PIs and 26% of those receiving ART had ever changed drug regimen, 15.5% of whom changed drugs due to lipodystrophy. Study 1 hypothesised that the mean nutritional status and predicted percent body fat values of study participants was within acceptable ranges; different for participants receiving ARVs and the HIV-infected ART-naïve participants and that percent body fat estimated by anthropometric measures (BMI and skinfold thickness) and the BIA technique was not different from that predicted by the deuterium oxide dilution technique. Using the Body Mass Index (BMI), 7.1% of patients were underweight (<18.5 kg/m2) and 46.4% were overweight/obese (≥25.0 kg/m2). Based on waist circumference (WC), approximately 40% of the cohort was characterized as centrally obese. Moreover, the deuterium dilution technique showed that there was no between-group difference in the total body water (TBW), fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM). However, the technique was the only approach to predict a between-group difference in percent body fat (p = .045), but, with a very small effect (0.021). Older age (β = 0.430, se = 0.089, p = .000), time spent receiving ARVs (β = 0.972, se = 0.089, p = .006), time with the infection (β = 0.551, se = 0.089, p = .000) and receiving ARVs (β = 2.940, se = 1.441, p = .043) were independently associated with percent body fat. Older age was the greatest single predictor of body fat. Furthermore, BMI gave better information than weight alone could; in that, mean percentage body fat per unit BMI (N = 192) was significantly higher in patients receiving treatment (1.11±0.31) vs. the exposed group (0.99±0.38, p = .025). For the assessment of obesity, percent fat measures did not greatly alter the accuracy of BMI as a measure for classifying individuals into the broad categories of underweight, normal and overweight. Briefly, Study 1 revealed that there were more overweight/obese participants than in the general Ugandan population, the problem was associated with ART status and that BMI broader classification categories were maintained when compared with the gold standard technique. Study 2 hypothesized that the presence of lipodystrophy in participants receiving ARVs was not different from that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants. Results showed that 112 (53.1%) patients had experienced at least one morphological alteration including lipohypertrophy (7.6%), lipoatrophy (10.9%), and mixed alterations (34.6%). The majority of these subjects (90%) were receiving ARVs; in fact, all patients receiving PIs reported lipodystrophy. Period spent receiving ARVs (t209 = 6.739, p = .000), being on ART (χ2 = 94.482, p = .000), receiving PIs (Fisher’s exact χ2 = 113.591, p = .000), recent T4 count (CD4 counts) (t207 = 3.694, p = .000), time with HIV (t125 = 1.915, p = .045), as well as older age (t209 = 2.013, p = .045) were independently associated with lipodystrophy. Receiving ARVs was the greatest predictor of lipodystrophy (p = .000). In other analysis, aside from skinfolds at the subscapular (p = .004), there were no differences with the rest of the skinfold sites and the circumferences between participants with lipodystrophy and those without the problem. Similarly, there was no difference in Waist: Hip ratio (WHR) (p = .186) and Waist: Height ratio (WHtR) (p = .257) among participants with lipodystrophy and those without the problem. Further examination showed that none of the 4.1% patients receiving stavudine (d4T) did experience lipoatrophy. However, 17.9% of patients receiving EFV, a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) had lipoatrophy. Study 2 findings showed that presence of lipodystrophy in participants receiving ARVs was in fact far higher than that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants. A final hypothesis was that the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in participants receiving ARVs was not different from that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants. Moreover, data showed that many patients (69.2%) lived with at least one feature of the metabolic syndrome based on International Diabetic Federation (IDF, 2006) definition. However, there was no single anthropometric predictor of components of the syndrome, thus, the best anthropometric predictor varied as the component varied. The metabolic syndrome was diagnosed in 15.2% of the subjects, lower than commonly reported in this population, and was similar between the medicated and the exposed groups (χ 21 = 0.018, p = .893). Moreover, the syndrome was associated with older age (p = .031) and percent body fat (p = .012). In addition, participants with the syndrome were heavier according to BMI (p = .000), larger at the waist (p = .000) and abdomen (p = .000), and were at central obesity risk even when hip circumference (p = .000) and height (p = .000) were accounted for. In spite of those associations, results showed that the period with disease (p = .13), CD4 counts (p = .836), receiving ART (p = .442) or PIs (p = .678) were not associated with the metabolic syndrome. While the prevalence of the syndrome was highest amongst the older, larger and fatter participants, WC was the best predictor of the metabolic syndrome (p = .001). Another novel finding was that participants with the metabolic syndrome had greater arm muscle circumference (AMC) (p = .000) and arm muscle area (AMA) (p = .000), but the former was most influential. Accordingly, the easiest and cheapest indicator to assess risk in this study sample was WC should routine laboratory services not be feasible. In addition, the final study illustrated that the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in participants receiving ARVs was not different from that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants.

'Sarcobesity' : a metabolic conundrum

Two independent but inter-related conditions that have a growing impact on healthy life expectancy and health care costs in developed nations are an age-related loss of muscle mass (i.e., sarcopenia) and obesity. Sarcopenia is commonly exacerbated in overweight and obese individuals. Progression towards obesity promotes an increase in fat mass and a concomitant decrease in muscle mass, producing an unfavourable ratio of fat to muscle. The coexistence of diminished muscle mass and increased fat mass (so-called 'sarcobesity') is ultimately manifested by impaired mobility and/or development of life-style-related diseases. Accordingly, the critical health issue for a large proportion of adults in developed nations is how to lose fat mass while preserving muscle mass. Lifestyle interventions to prevent or treat sarcobesity include energy-restricted diets and exercise. The optimal energy deficit to reduce body mass is controversial. While energy restriction in isolation is an effective short-term strategy for rapid and substantial weight loss, it results in a reduction of both fat and muscle mass and therefore ultimately predisposes one to an unfavourable body composition. Aerobic exercise promotes beneficial changes in whole-body metabolism and reduces fat mass, while resistance exercise preserves lean (muscle) mass. Current evidence strongly supports the inclusion of resistance and aerobic exercise to complement mild energy-restricted high-protein diets for healthy weight loss as a primary intervention for sarcobesity.

Urban growth in the Kathmandu Valley: The transformation of public space

Traditional towns of the Kathmandu Valley boast a fine provision of public spaces in their neighbourhoods. Historically, a hierarchy of public space has been distributed over the entire town with each neighbourhood centered around more or less spacious public squares. However, rapid growth of these towns over the past decades has resulted in haphazard development of new urban areas with little provision of public space. Recent studies indicate that the loss of public space is a major consequence of the uncontrolled urban growth of the Kathmandu Valley and its new neighbourhoods. This paper reviews the current urban growth of the Kathmandu Valley and its impact on the development of public space in new neighbourhoods. The preliminary analysis of the case study of three new neighbourhoods shows that the formation and utilization of neighbourhood public space exhibit fundamental differences from those found in the traditional city cores. The following key issues are identified in this paper: a) Governance and regulations have been a challenge to regulate rapid urban growth; b) The current pattern of neighbourhood formation is found to be different from that of traditional neighbourhoods due to the changes with rapid urban development; c) Public spaces have been compromised in both planned and unplanned new neighbourhoods in terms of their quantity and quality; d) The changing provision of public space has contributed to its changing use and meaning; and e) The changing demographic composition, changing society and life style have had direct impact on the declining use of public space. Moreover, the management of public spaces remains a big challenge due to their changing nature and the changing governance. The current transformation public space does not appear to be conducive, and has led to adversely changing social environment of the new neighbourhoods.

A sunburnt country – storms, surges and sea levels : of insurance and flooding rains

Increasing population pressures and life-style choices are resulting in more people living in areas that are at risk of inundation from rising sea levels and flooding. However, following natural disaster events, such as the 2011 Queensland floods, many Australians discovered they were uninsured. Either their insurance policies did not cover flood; or multiple (and confusing) water-related definitions led them to believe they had cover when they did not. Several theories are analysed to try to explain what is a world-wide underinsurance problem but these do not provide an answer to the problem. This research focuses on uncovering the reasons consumers fail to adequately insure for flood and other water-related events. Recent Australian legislative attempts to overcome insureds’ confusion of water related definitions are examined for this purpose. The authors conclude that Australian and other) legislators should set a maximum premium for a minimum amount of flood and sea related cover; and restrict the building and style of homes in flood prone areas.

Super DNAging - New insights into DNA integrity, genome stability and telomeres in the oldest old

Reductions in DNA integrity, genome stability, and telomere length are strongly associated with the aging process, age-related diseases as well as the age-related loss of muscle mass. However, in people reaching an age far beyond their statistical life expectancy the prevalence of diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes or dementia, is much lower compared to “averagely” aged humans. These inverse observations in nonagenarians (90–99 years), centenarians (100–109 years) and super-centenarians (110 years and older) require a closer look into dynamics underlying DNA damage within the oldest old of our society. Available data indicate improved DNA repair and antioxidant defense mechanisms in “super old” humans, which are comparable with much younger cohorts. Partly as a result of these enhanced endogenous repair and protective mechanisms, the oldest old humans appear to cope better with risk factors for DNA damage over their lifetime compared to subjects whose lifespan coincides with the statistical life expectancy. This model is supported by study results demonstrating superior chromosomal stability, telomere dynamics and DNA integrity in “successful agers”. There is also compelling evidence suggesting that life-style related factors including regular physical activity, a well-balanced diet and minimized psycho-social stress can reduce DNA damage and improve chromosomal stability. The most conclusive picture that emerges from reviewing the literature is that reaching “super old” age appears to be primarily determined by hereditary/genetic factors, while a healthy lifestyle additionally contributes to achieving the individual maximum lifespan in humans. More research is required in this rapidly growing population of super old people. In particular, there is need for more comprehensive investigations including short- and long-term lifestyle interventions as well as investigations focusing on the mechanisms causing DNA damage, mutations, and telomere shortening.

Assistance arrangements and use of services among persons with multiple sclerosis and their caregivers

A large population-based survey of persons with multiple sclerosis (MS) and their caregivers was conducted in Ontario using self-completed mailed questionnaires. The objectives included describing assistance arrangements, needs, and use of and satisfaction with services, and comparing perceptions of persons with MS and their caregivers. Response rates were 83% and 72% for those with MS and caregivers, respectively. Based on 697 respondents with MS whose mean age is 48 years, 70% are female, and 75% are married. While 24% experience no mobility restrictions, the majority require some type of aid or a wheelchair for getting around. Among 345 caregivers, who have been providing care for 9 years on average, the majority are spouses. Caregivers report providing more frequent care than do persons with MS report receiving it, particularly for the following activities of daily living: eating, meal preparation, and help with personal finances. Caregivers also report assistance of longer duration per day than do care recipients with MS. Frequency and duration of assistance are positively associated with increased MS symptom severity and reduced mobility. Generally there is no rural-urban disparity in service provision, utilization or satisfaction, and although there is a wide range of service utilization, satisfaction is consistently high. Respite care is rarely used by caregivers. Use of several services is positively associated with increased severity of MS symptoms and reduced mobility. Assistance arrangements and use of services, each from the point of view of persons with MS and their caregivers, must be taken into account in efforts to prolong home care and to postpone early institutionalization of persons with MS.

The complementation of yeast with human or Plasmodium falciparum Hsp90 confers differential inhibitor sensitivities

Developing novel drugs against the unicellular parasite Plasmodium is complicated by the paucity of simple screening systems. Heat-shock proteins are an essential class of proteins for the parasite's cyclical life style between different cellular milieus and temperatures. The molecular chaperone Hsp90 assists a large variety of proteins, but its supporting functions for many proteins that are important for cancer have made it into a well-studied drug target. With a better understanding of the differences between Hsp90 of the malarial parasite and Hsp90 of its human host, new therapeutic options might become available. We have generated a set of isogenic strains of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae where the essential yeast Hsp90 proteins have been replaced with either of the two human cytosolic isoforms Hsp90 alpha or Hsp90 beta, or with Hsp90 from Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). All strains express large amounts of the Flag-tagged Hsp90 proteins and are viable. Even though the strain with Pf Hsp90 grows more poorly, it provides a tool to reconstitute additional aspects of the parasite Hsp90 complex and its interactions with substrates in yeast as a living test tube. Upon exposure of the set of Hsp90 test strains to the two Hsp90 inhibitors radicicol (Rd) and geldanamycin (GA), we found that the strain with Pf Hsp90 is relatively more sensitive to GA than to Rd compared to the strains with human Hsp90's. This indicates that this set of yeast strains could be used to screen for new Pf Hsp90 inhibitors with a wider therapeutic window.

Dancing and Professional Dancers in Roman Egypt

The main aim of the study is to create a many-sided view of dancing in Roman Egypt (1st - early 4th centuries AD) and especially of the dancers who earned their living by dancing as hired performers. Even though dancers and other performers played a central part in many kinds of festivities throughout the ancient world, research on ancient professional dancers is rare and tends to rest on the ancient literature, which reflects the opinions of the elite. Documentary written sources (i.e., papyri, ostraka) the core of the present study are mentioned rather superficially, easily resulting in a stereotypical view of the dancers. This study will balance the picture of professional dancers in antiquity and of ancient dancing in a more general sense. The second aim characterizes this study as basic research: to provide a corpus of written sources from Greco-Roman Egypt on dancing and to discuss pictorial sources contemporary with the texts. The study also takes into account the theoretical discussion that centres on dancing as a nonverbal communicative mode. Dancers are seen as significant conveyors of social and cultural matters. This study shows that dancers were hired to perform especially in religious contexts, where the local associations on the village level also played an important part as the employers of the performers. These performers had a better standard of living in economic terms than the average hired worker, and dancers were better paid than other performers. In the Egyptian villages and towns, where the dancers performed and lived, the dancers do not seem to have been marginal because they were professionals or because of some ethnic or social background. However, their possible marginality may have occurred for reasons related to the practicalities of their profession (e.g., the itinerant life style). The oriental background of performers was a literary topos reflecting partly the situation in the centres of the empire, especially Rome, where many performers were of other than Roman origin. The connection of dancing, prostitution and slavery reflects the essential link between dance, body and gender: dancers are equated with such professions or socio-legal statuses where the body is the focus of attention, a commodity and a source of sensual pleasure; this dimension is clearly observable in ancient literature. According to the Egyptian documentary sources, there is no watertight evidence that professional dancers would have been engaged in prostitution and very little, if any, evidence that the disapproval of the professional dancers expressed by the ancient authors was shared by the Egyptians. From the 4th century onwards the dancers almost disappear from the documentary sources, reflecting the political and religious changes in the Mediterranean east.

Nuorten henkilökohtaisten tavoitteiden profiilit ja subjektiivinen hyvinvointi

Personal goals offer an important aspect of personality and motivation. Personal goals are conscious and subjectively motivated objectives by which a person directs his or her life over time. Personal goals are related to adolescents' subjective well-being. The aim of the present research was to find out, what kinds of groups of adolescents can be formed by the content of personal goals and how these groups differ in goal appraisals, meaningful life events and subjective well-being. The second aim of the study was to detect gender differences and differences between vocational and high school students in goal appraisals, meaningful life events and subjective well-being. Adolescents in upper secondary education (N=1144) were grouped together by the content of their personal goals using a person oriented approach and a cluster analysis. Clusters found in the analysis were named by the centre goal as (1) a property group, (2) a vocation group, (3) a future education and personal relationships group and (4) a selffocused group. Adolescents in the property group put a little effort into their career goal, they were not exhausted in school work and their subjective well-being was average. Adolescents in the vocation group felt progress in their career goal and put effort into it. They had goals related to life-style. They did not feel exhausted and their subjective well-being was average. The future education and personal relationships group put effort into their career goal and considered progressing in it. Personal relationships were important in their lives. They were exhausted in their school work but they did not feel cynicism. Their own health was one of their goals and they felt satisfaction in their life. Adolescents in the self-focused group did not put effort into their career goal nor considered progressing in it. They were exhausted and especially cynical in their school work. They suffered from almost clinically significant depression. They had low life-satisfaction and low self-esteem. The following gender and educational differences were found. Compared with boys, girls felt their career goal was more important and stressful, and girls also put more effort into it. Girls were more exhausted, depressed and they had lower selfesteem than boys. High school students felt more stress with their career goal than vocational school students. High school students were more exhausted, but still they felt more satisfaction with their lives. In practice, to cover adolescents' personal goals is a possibility to find distressed individuals who might be in need for extra support.

Rakkaat vanhemmat? : Perheen merkityksestä erityisluokan oppilaalle

The aim of this study was to find out the meaning family has for a pupil who studies in a special class, or how important family is for the pupil s emotional life, the development of his self-confidence, freetime activities, attitudes on school, plans for further studies and his general social development. The theoretical base of this study was formed by social scientists' theories on postmodern family, which is due to urbanization and urban life style, and theories on family pluralism, the powerful effects that changes in family life have on pupils in special education, the weak self-confidence and low sosioeconomic background among those pupils and the effects of family's sosioeconomic status on pupil's willingness to get education or the theory on the accumulation of education. Study problems were set in the direction determined by these theories and in order to study the accurateness of the theories. The method used in the study was theme interview, which is sometimes also called half-structured interview. The material for the study was collected in October 1998 in a special school in Helsinki. The material contains answers given by pupils in theme interviews and background information about pupils' families, which where collected from the pupils' parents by mail. Content analysis was used to analyze the material. The study showed that it is very important to pupils' attitudes on school and their self-confidence that their families are entire and that the families give them support. The children, whose parents are interested in school education and discuss a lot about things, seem to have positive attitudes on school and good self-confidence, too. The parental support also has an effect on how the pupils spend their free time and on their hobbies, too. Obviously the families have quite an important meaning for pupils in special class, but if the families don t support them, the consequence is problems particularly for the development of self-confidence. The theory on the low sosioeconomic background among students in special education gets support from this study, but nothing can be said about it's effect on further studies. On account of the results it can be suggested that special schools must arrange occasions where the pupils' parents are clearly informed about the important meaning of their support for the pupils studies and the development of the pupils' self-confidence. The most important sources for the theoretical background were the books written by Jallinoja, Kivinenand Rinne, Moberg, Scanzoni and P. Takala. The most important sources for the method were the books written by Hirsjärvi and Hurme and Pietilä. Keywords: family, special class, pupil in special education, support, self-confidence, postmodern family

Increasing vegetable consumption: a means-end chain approach

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to illustrate how means-end chain theory can inform communications that effectively convey the health messages of vegetable consumption to various publics. Design/methodology/approach – Laddering interviews were conducted with 61 participants who consumed at least two serves of vegetables a day and were responsible in part or whole for shopping in their household. A means-end chain value map was then constructed using mecanalyst software. Findings – Using means-end theory, an example communications strategy was developed from the dominant chain. The health and wellness features that respondents associated with vegetables were “freshness”, a “source of vitamins and minerals”, and “high nutritional value”. In the mind of the consumer, these features were linked to the benefit concept “maintain energy and vitality”, which in turn was connected to the consequence “maintain an active life”. The end-states or goals participants ultimately connected to the health and wellness features of vegetables were that of “enjoy life” and “achieve goals”. Research limitations/implications – The research is limited in so far as subjects who consume less than two serves of vegetables are not recruited for this study. Practical implications – It is suggested that social marketing initiatives designed to increase vegetable consumption may base messages on health-related values or end-states of being to resonate more effectively with consumers. Social implications – High vegetable consumption is associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease. Effective strategies designed to increase vegetable consumption amongst populations may reduce the burden on health systems. Originality/value – This study illustrates how consumers' cognitive processes can inform social marketing communications.

A genome-wide association study of Cloninger's temperament scales: implications for the evolutionary genetics of personality

Variation in personality traits is 30-60% attributed to genetic influences. Attempts to unravel these genetic influences at the molecular level have, so far, been inconclusive. We performed the first genome-wide association study of Cloninger's temperament scales in a sample of 5117 individuals, in order to identify common genetic variants underlying variation in personality. Participants' scores on Harm Avoidance, Novelty Seeking, Reward Dependence, and Persistence were tested for association with 1,252,387 genetic markers. We also performed gene-based association tests and biological pathway analyses. No genetic variants that significantly contribute to personality variation were identified, while our sample provides over 90% power to detect variants that explain only 1% of the trait variance. This indicates that individual common genetic variants of this size or greater do not contribute to personality trait variation, which has important implications regarding the genetic architecture of personality and the evolutionary mechanisms by which heritable variation is maintained.