Variations in national management accounting approaches

During the 1990's studies of management accounting practices in Europe and in Latin America have given us data on 23 countries. In this paper we use this data to identify five distinct aspects of national management accounting culture being:1. The influence of regulations on official recommendations;2. The source of management accountants;3. Influence from one country to another;4. Variations in use of specific techniques;5. Variations in the objectives of the management accounting system.We then identify seven significant implications of the manager operating in the multinational environment.

The struggle against creative accounting: Is "true and fair view" part of the problem or part of the solution?

Creative accounting is a growing issue of interest in Spain. In this article we argue that the concept true and fair view can limit or promote the use of creative accounting depending upon its interpretation. We review the range of meanings that true and fair view can take at an international level and compare the experience of the United Kingdom with the Australian one by analysing the use of true and fair view to limit creative accounting. Finally, we suggest lines of action to be considered by the Spanish accounting standards-setting institutions.

An attempt to go beyond conventional financial accounting information

Conventional financial accounting informationis slanted in favour of certain economic interests. This paper argues in favour ofaccounting information capturing and showingrelevant aspects of the economic-social situation,and of decision-making based on it allowingfor decisions to be taken with economic-social,and not purely economic-weighted, awareness.

Ethics and creative accounting: Some empirical evidence on accounting for intangibles in Spain

Recent research shows that financial reports are losing relevance. Mainly thisis due to the growing strategic importance of intangible assets in theperformance of a company. A possible solution is to modify accounting standardsso that statements include more self-generated intangible assets, taking intoaccount with their inherent risk and difficulty of valuation. We surveyed loanofficers who were asked to assess the credit-worthiness of a hypotheticalcompany. The only information given was a simplified version of financialstatements. Half the group got statements where research and development costshad been capitalized. The other half got statements in which these costs hadbeen treated as an expense. The findings show that capitalization wassignificantly more likely to attract a positive response to a loan request. Thepaper raises the question of whether accounting for intangibles might providemanagers with one more creative accounting technique and, in consequence, itsethical implications.

Expertise and finance: Mergers motivated by technological change

This paper argues that a large technological innovation may lead to a merger wave by inducing entrepreneurs to seek funds from technologically knowledgeable firms -experts. When a large technological innovation occurs, the ability of non-experts (banks) to discriminate between good and bad quality projects is reduced. Experts can continue to charge a low rate of interest for financing because their expertise enables them to identify good quality projects and to avoid unprofitable investments. On the other hand, non-experts now charge a higher rate of interest in order to screen bad projects. More entrepreneurs, therefore, disclose their projects to experts to raise funds from them. Such experts are, however, able to copy the projects and disclosure to them invites the possibility of competition. Thus the entrepreneur and the expert may merge so as to achieve product market collusion. As well as rationalizing mergers, the model can also explain various forms of venture financing by experts such as corporate investors and business angels.

Environmental factors giving rise to variations in national management accounting practice

Comparative national management accounting is the least developed aspect in the field of international accounting. Only during the second half of the 1990's some comparisons of national managementaccounting practice have appeared published but only at theregional level. In this paper a range of factors that give rise to variations in national management accounting practice are postulated. We support this list with examples from a range of analyses of national management accounting practices, drawing particularly on the work of Lizcano (1996) and Bhimani (1996).Finally, twelve key factors are identified as influencing an individual country's approach to management accounting.

The ethics of creative accounting: Some Spanish evidence

'Creative accounting' involves accountants in making accounting policy choices or manipulating transactions in such a way as to give the impression in the accounts that they prefer. While regarded as unethical by most observers, a defence of creative accounting can be based on the ability of the users of accounts to identify bias in accounting policy choices and make appropriate adjustments.In this paper we take the example of the Barcelona Football Club where the club management made three key accounting policy choices that presented a favourable position, and a supporters' club presented an alternative report choosing three alternative accounting policies that presented an unfavourable position. We presented each of these financial reports to one of two groups of Spanish bank loan offices, with supporting notes making the impact of the accounting policy choices clear. We found that the more favourable set of accounts was significantly more likely to attract a positive response to a loan request.This result undermines the defence for creative accounting, based on the ability of users to identify manipulation.

International accounting harmonisation - A comparison of Spain, Sweden and Austria

Despite attempts to secure harmonisation of accounting practice,significant variations in accounting rules and practice continueto arise in European countries, variations which give rise tocompliance costs for multinational companies.Firstly, this paper considers the relevance of internationalaccounting harmonisation for European business. It then proceedsto examine accounting regulation in three countries: Spain, Swedenand Austria, highlighting the key regulatory issues of the 'trueand fair' view requirement and the link between taxation andaccounting. The three countries are selected because of theinteresting contrasts which they provide; these contrasts areexamined in detail in the paper.The work is based upon a series of interviews carried out withleading accounting practitioners in the three countries during1996-97.The paper concludes that there are significant obstacles toaccounting harmonisation in Europe and that there is potentialfor continuing diversity of national accounting practice.

Creative accounting: Nature, incidence and ethical issues

This paper explores the nature and incidence of creative accounting practiceswithin the context of ethical considerations.It explores several definitionsof creative accounting and the potential and the range of reasons for acompany's directors to engage in creative accounting. Later the paperconsiders the various ways in which creative accounting can be undertaken andsummarizes some empirical research on the nature and incidence of creativeaccounting. The ethical dimension of creative accounting is discussed, drawingevidence from several empirical studies. The paper concludes with the analysisof possible solutions for the creative accounting problem.

Report on applying agreed-upon procedures to the Villisca Municipal Power Plant’s accounting procedures, cash and investment balances and compliance with Code of Iowa requirements for the period February 1, 2007 through December 31, 2010

Report on applying agreed-upon procedures to the Villisca Municipal Power Plant’s accounting procedures, cash and investment balances and compliance with Code of Iowa requirements for the period February 1, 2007 through December 31, 2010

Report on the Peace Officers’ Retirement, Accident and Disability System, Schedule of Employer Pension Amounts required to implement Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) Statement No. 68, Accounting and Financial Reporting for Pensions for the year ended June 30, 2015

Report on the Peace Officers’ Retirement, Accident and Disability System, Schedule of Employer Pension Amounts required to implement Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) Statement No. 68, Accounting and Financial Reporting for Pensions for the year ended June 30, 2015

Leasingsopimusten kirjaaminen tilinpäätökseen, case: Toyota Finance Finland Oy

Tutkielman pääaiheena on leasingsopimusten kirjaaminen tilinpäätökseen viiden eri tilinpäätösnormiston näkökulmasta. Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää viiden tilinpäätösnormiston, suomalaisen GAAP:n ja IFRS:n, UK GAAP:n, US GAAP:n sekä Japanin GAAP:n, eroavaisuuksia ja yhteneväisyyksiä ja keskittyä näissä varsinkin leasingsopimusten kirjanpidollisten käsittelytapojen eroavaisuuksien tarkasteluun. Lisäksi tutkielman alatavoitteena on selvittää näiden normistojen yleisiä kirjanpidon ja tilinpäätöksen periaatteita. Tutkielman empiria perustuu case-yritys Toyota Finance Finland Oy:n ja sen emoyritysten tilinpäätösten muodon sekä konsernitilinpäätösten sisällön ja leasingsopimusten käsittelyn tarkasteluun. Tutkielma on case-tutkimus mutta se perustuu myös ongelman teoreettiseen käsittelyyn lähdemateriaalin, caseyrityksestä saadun informaation ja oman päättelyn pohjalta. Tutkielma on deskriptiivistä ja sen tarkoituksena onpyrkiä saamaan vastauksia kysymyksiin 'miten on?' ja 'miksi on?'. Tutkielman edetessä voidaan havaita, että vaikka yleiset kirjanpito- ja tilinpäätösperiaatteet ovat aika lailla samansisältöisiä kaikissa viidessä tilinpäätösnormistossa, sisältävät tietyt tilinpäätösstandardit ja -periaatteet huomattaviakin eroavaisuuksia. Leasingsopimukset ovat hyvä esimerkki tilinpäätöseristä, joiden käsittelypoikkeaa huomattavasti toisistaan näiden viiden tilinpäätösnormiston välillä.Suurimman ongelman aiheuttavat käyttö- ja rahoitusleasingsopimusten erilaiset käsittelytavat eri tilinpäätösnormistoissa. Suomalaisen lainsäädännön mukaan käyttö- ja rahoitusleasingsopimukset käsitellään kirjanpidollisesti samalla tavalla mutta esimerkiksi IFRS-normiston, UK GAAP:n ja US GAAP:n mukaan leasingsopimukset tulee jaotella käyttö- ja rahoitusleasingsopimuksiksi niille annettujen luokittelukriteereiden perusteella. Leasingsopimuksen luonteen perusteella määräytyy myös sen kirjanpidollinen käsittely. Suurimman eron suomalaisen käytännön ja esimerkiksi IFRS-normiston välillä aiheuttaa se, että rahoitusleasingsopimukset viedään IFRS-normistossa vuokralle ottajan taseeseen omaisuudeksi ja rahoitusleasingsopimuksen myötä vuokralle ottajalle siirtyy myös kaikki leasinghyödykkeeseen liittyvät edut ja riskit. Suomalaisessa käytännössä rahoitusleasing käsitellään aivan kuin käyttöleasingsopimus, vuokralle antajan taseessa. Käyttöleasingsopimuksen kirjanpidollinen käsittelytapa on kaikissa normistoissa jokseenkin samankaltainen.

The role of management accounting systems and venture capital investors for start-up firms

The role of star-up firms in economy and the importance of venture capital investors for the growth of start-up firms have been highlighted in recent years. The growth challenges of start-up firms consist of fast changing environment, the availability of venture capital funding and the development of firm management in the growth phase. A growing number of studies have focused on management accounting systems and venture capital in start-up and growth firm context. In this thesis the role of management accounting systems and venture capital investors is considered in the growth phase of firm development. The theoretical objective of this thesis is to construct a theoretical framework in order to describe the importance of management accounting systems and venture capital investors in start-up firms. The practice orientated objective of this thesis is to study the application of management accounting systems and management accounting based information in start-up firms in high-technology industry as well as the impact of venture capital for management accounting system design. In addition, the growth challenges of start-up firms are studied in order to understand the context in which management accounting systems are used. The research approach of theoretical part is conceptual as the theoretical framework is constructed by combining literature on firm growth, management accounting and venture finance in order to analyse the phenomenon. The action-orientated research approach is appropriate for analysing and describing of the studied phenomenon through empirical evidence. The empirical evidence was collected through interviews with three experts in start-up firm accelerator centers, four representatives of start-up firms and one venture capital investor. The results indicate that the growth challenges of stat-up firms are not related to the development of management accounting systems. Managers of start-up firms expressed a positive attitude towards management accounting systems that improve efficiency of operations. In start-up firms flexible and adjustable management accounting practices, such as budgets, cash flow calculations and future-orientated analysis tools, are applied that support planning and coordination of operations. The results indicate that venture capital investors affect the provision and the quality of management accounting information during the investment process. In addition, venture capital investors enhance the use of management accounting information for internal coordination in start-up firms. By applying the theoretical framework in the analysis, it can be stated that by acting as support function management accounting systems facilitate start-up firms development.