Microwave-Mediated Hetero Diels-Alder reaction: Synthesis of biologically active compounds

Heterocyclic compounds represent almost two-thirds of all the known organic compounds: they are widely distributed in nature and play a key role in a huge number of biologically important molecules including some of the most significant for human beings. A powerful tool for the synthesis of such compounds is the hetero Diels-Alder reaction (HDA), that involve a [4+2] cycloaddition reaction between heterodienes and suitable dienophiles. Among heterodienes to be used in such six-membered heterocyclic construction strategy, 3-trialkylsilyloxy-2-aza-1,3-dienes (Fig 1) has been demonstrated particularly attractive. In this thesis work, HDA reactions between 2-azadienes and carbonylic and/or olefinic dienophiles, are described. Moreover, substitution of conventional heating by the corresponding dielectric heating as been explored in the frame of Microwave-Assisted-Organic-Synthesis (MAOS) which constitutes an up-to-grade research field of great interest both from an academic and industrial point of view. Reaction of the azadiene 1 (Fig 1) will be described using as dienophiles carbonyl compounds as aldehyde and ketones. The six-membered adducts thus obtained (Scheme 1) have been elaborated to biologically active compounds like 1,3-aminols which constitutes the scaffold for a wide range of drugs (Prozac®, Duloxetine, Venlafaxine) with large applications in the treatment of severe diseases of nervous central system (NCS). Scheme 1 The reaction provides the formation of three new stereogenic centres (C-2; C-5; C-6). The diastereoselective outcome of these reactions has been deeply investigated by the use of various combination of achiral and chiral azadienes and aliphatic, aromatic or heteroaromatic aldehydes. The same approach, basically, has been used in the synthesis of piperidin-2-one scaffold substituting the carbonyl dienophile with an electron poor olefin. Scheme 2 As a matter of fact, this scaffold is present in a very large number of natural substances and, more interesting, is a required scaffold for an huge variety of biologically active compounds. Activated olefins bearing one or two sulfone groups, were choose as dienophiles both for the intrinsic characteristic flexibility of the “sulfone group” which may be easily removed or elaborated to more complex decorations of the heterocyclic ring, and for the electron poor property of this dienophiles which makes the resulting HDA reaction of the type “normal electron demand”. Synthesis of natural compounds like racemic (±)-Anabasine (alkaloid of Tobacco’s leaves) and (R)- and (S)-Conhydrine (alkaloid of Conium Maculatum’s seeds and leaves) and its congeners, are described (Fig 2).

Design and synthesis of novel non peptidomimtic beta-secretase inhibitors in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

The aspartic protease BACE1 (β-amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme, β-secretase) is recognized as one of the most promising targets in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The accumulation of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) in the brain is a major factor in the pathogenesis of AD. Aβ is formed by initial cleavage of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β-secretase, therefore BACE1 inhibition represents one of the therapeutic approaches to control progression of AD, by preventing the abnormal generation of Aβ. For this reason, in the last decade, many research efforts have focused at the identification of new BACE1 inhibitors as drug candidates. Generally, BACE1 inhibitors are grouped into two families: substrate-based inhibitors, designed as peptidomimetic inhibitors, and non-peptidomimetic ones. The research on non-peptidomimetic small molecules BACE1 inhibitors remains the most interesting approach, since these compounds hold an improved bioavailability after systemic administration, due to a good blood-brain barrier permeability in comparison to peptidomimetic inhibitors. Very recently, our research group discovered a new promising lead compound for the treatment of AD, named lipocrine, a hybrid derivative between lipoic acid and the AChE inhibitor (AChEI) tacrine, characterized by a tetrahydroacridinic moiety. Lipocrine is one of the first compounds able to inhibit the catalytic activity of AChE and AChE-induced amyloid-β aggregation and to protect against reactive oxygen species. Due to this interesting profile, lipocrine was also evaluated for BACE1 inhibitory activity, resulting in a potent lead compound for BACE1 inhibition. Starting from this interesting profile, a series of tetrahydroacridine analogues were synthesised varying the chain length between the two fragments. Moreover, following the approach of combining in a single molecule two different pharmacophores, we designed and synthesised different compounds bearing the moieties of known AChEIs (rivastigmine and caproctamine) coupled with lipoic acid, since it was shown that dithiolane group is an important structural feature of lipocrine for the optimal inhibition of BACE1. All the tetrahydroacridines, rivastigmine and caproctamine-based compounds, were evaluated for BACE1 inhibitory activity in a FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) enzymatic assay (test A). With the aim to enhancing the biological activity of the lead compound, we applied the molecular simplification approach to design and synthesize novel heterocyclic compounds related to lipocrine, in which the tetrahydroacridine moiety was replaced by 4-amino-quinoline or 4-amino-quinazoline rings. All the synthesized compounds were also evaluated in a modified FRET enzymatic assay (test B), changing the fluorescent substrate for enzymatic BACE1 cleavage. This test method guided deep structure-activity relationships for BACE1 inhibition on the most promising quinazoline-based derivatives. By varying the substituent on the 2-position of the quinazoline ring and by replacing the lipoic acid residue in lateral chain with different moieties (i.e. trans-ferulic acid, a known antioxidant molecule), a series of quinazoline derivatives were obtained. In order to confirm inhibitory activity of the most active compounds, they were evaluated with a third FRET assay (test C) which, surprisingly, did not confirm the previous good activity profiles. An evaluation study of kinetic parameters of the three assays revealed that method C is endowed with the best specificity and enzymatic efficiency. Biological evaluation of the modified 2,4-diamino-quinazoline derivatives measured through the method C, allow to obtain a new lead compound bearing the trans-ferulic acid residue coupled to 2,4-diamino-quinazoline core endowed with a good BACE1 inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.8 mM). We reported on the variability of the results in the three different FRET assays that are known to have some disadvantages in term of interference rates that are strongly dependent on compound properties. The observed results variability could be also ascribed to different enzyme origin, varied substrate and different fluorescent groups. The inhibitors should be tested on a parallel screening in order to have a more reliable data prior to be tested into cellular assay. With this aim, preliminary cellular BACE1 inhibition assay carried out on lipocrine confirmed a good cellular activity profile (EC50 = 3.7 mM) strengthening the idea to find a small molecule non-peptidomimetic compound as BACE1 inhibitor. In conclusion, the present study allowed to identify a new lead compound endowed with BACE1 inhibitory activity in submicromolar range. Further lead optimization to the obtained derivative is needed in order to obtain a more potent and a selective BACE1 inhibitor based on 2,4-diamino-quinazoline scaffold. A side project related to the synthesis of novel enzymatic inhibitors of BACE1 in order to explore the pseudopeptidic transition-state isosteres chemistry was carried out during research stage at Università de Montrèal (Canada) in Hanessian's group. The aim of this work has been the synthesis of the δ-aminocyclohexane carboxylic acid motif with stereochemically defined substitution to incorporating such a constrained core in potential BACE1 inhibitors. This fragment, endowed with reduced peptidic character, is not known in the context of peptidomimetic design. In particular, we envisioned an alternative route based on an organocatalytic asymmetric conjugate addition of nitroalkanes to cyclohexenone in presence of D-proline and trans-2,5-dimethylpiperazine. The enantioenriched obtained 3-(α-nitroalkyl)-cyclohexanones were further functionalized to give the corresponding δ-nitroalkyl cyclohexane carboxylic acids. These intermediates were elaborated to the target structures 3-(α-aminoalkyl)-1-cyclohexane carboxylic acids in a new readily accessible way.

Utilizzo di dispositivi magnetici nel trattamento della patologia artrosica del ginocchio

The use of scaffolds for Tissue Engineering (TE) is increasing due to their efficacy in helping the body rebuild damaged or diseased tissue. Hydroxyapatite (HA) is the most suitable bioactive ceramic to be used in orthopaedic reconstruction since it replicates the mineral component of the hard tissues, and it has therefore excellent biocompatibility properties. The temporal and spatial control of the tissue regeneration process is the limit to be overcome in order to treat large bone and osteochondral defects. In this thesis we describe the realization of a magnetic scaffolds able to attract and take up growth factors or other bio-agents in vivo via a driving magnetic force. This concept involves the use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) functionalized with selected growth factors or stem cells. These functionalized MNP act as shuttles transporting the bio-agents towards and inside the scaffold under the effect of the magnetic field, enhancing the control of tissue regeneration processes. This scaffold can be imagined as a fixed “station” that provides a unique possibility to adjust the scaffold activity to the specific needs of the healing tissue. Synthetic bone graft substitutes, made of collagen or biomineralized collagen (i.e. biomimetic Hydroxyapatite/collagen composites) were used as starting materials for the fabrication of magnetic scaffolds. These materials are routinely used clinically to replace damaged or diseased cartilaginous or bone tissue. Our magnetization technique is based on a dip-coating process consisting in the infilling of biologically inspired porous scaffolds with aqueous biocompatible ferrofluids’ suspensions. In this technique, the specific interconnected porosity of the scaffolds allows the ferrofluids to be drawn inside the structure by capillarity. A subsequent freeze-drying process allows the solvent elimination while keeping very nearly the original shape and porosity of the scaffolds. The remaining magnetic nanoparticles, which are trapped in the structure, lead to the magnetization of the HA/Collagen scaffold. We demonstrate here the possibility to magnetize commercially available scaffolds up to magnetization values that are used in drug delivery processes. The preliminary biocompatibility test showed that the investigated scaffolds provide a suitable micro-environment for cells. The biocompatibility of scaffold facilitates the growth and proliferation of osteogenic cells.

Supramolecular functional assemblies with photo or chemical addressability

Supramolecular self-assembly represents a key technology for the spontaneous construction of nanoarchitectures and for the fabrication of materials with enhanced physical and chemical properties. In addition, a significant asset of supramolecular self-assemblies rests on their reversible formation, thanks to the kinetic lability of their non-covalent interactions. This dynamic nature can be exploited for the development of “self-healing” and “smart” materials towards the tuning of their functional properties upon various external factors. One particular intriguing objective in the field is to reach a high level of control over the shape and size of the supramolecular architectures, in order to produce well-defined functional nanostructures by rational design. In this direction, many investigations have been pursued toward the construction of self-assembled objects from numerous low-molecular weight scaffolds, for instance by exploiting multiple directional hydrogen-bonding interactions. In particular, nucleobases have been used as supramolecular synthons as a result of their efficiency to code for non-covalent interaction motifs. Among nucleobases, guanine represents the most versatile one, because of its different H-bond donor and acceptor sites which display self-complementary patterns of interactions. Interestingly, and depending on the environmental conditions, guanosine derivatives can form various types of structures. Most of the supramolecular architectures reported in this Thesis from guanosine derivatives require the presence of a cation which stabilizes, via dipole-ion interactions, the macrocyclic G-quartet that can, in turn, stack in columnar G-quadruplex arrangements. In addition, in absence of cations, guanosine can polymerize via hydrogen bonding to give a variety of supramolecular networks including linear ribbons. This complex supramolecular behavior confers to the guanine-guanine interactions their upper interest among all the homonucleobases studied. They have been subjected to intense investigations in various areas ranging from structural biology and medicinal chemistry – guanine-rich sequences are abundant in telomeric ends of chromosomes and promoter regions of DNA, and are capable of forming G-quartet based structures– to material science and nanotechnology. This Thesis, organized into five Chapters, describes mainly some recent advances in the form and function provided by self-assembly of guanine based systems. More generally, Chapter 4 will focus on the construction of supramolecular self-assemblies whose self-assembling process and self-assembled architectures can be controlled by light as external stimulus. Chapter 1 will describe some of the many recent studies of G-quartets in the general area of nanoscience. Natural G- quadruplexes can be useful motifs to build new structures and biomaterials such as self-assembled nanomachines, biosensors, therapeutic aptamer and catalysts. In Chapters 2-4 it is pointed out the core concept held in this PhD Thesis, i.e. the supramolecular organization of lipophilic guanosine derivatives with photo or chemical addressability. Chapter 2 will mainly focus on the use of cation-templated guanosine derivatives as a potential scaffold for designing functional materials with tailored physical properties, showing a new way to control the bottom-up realization of well-defined nanoarchitectures. In section 2.6.7, the self-assembly properties of compound 28a may be considered an example of open-shell moieties ordered by a supramolecular guanosine architecture showing a new (magnetic) property. Chapter 3 will report on ribbon-like structures, supramolecular architectures formed by guanosine derivatives that may be of interest for the fabrication of molecular nanowires within the framework of future molecular electronic applications. In section 3.4 we investigate the supramolecular polymerizations of derivatives dG 1 and G 30 by light scattering technique and TEM experiments. The obtained data reveal the presence of several levels of organization due to the hierarchical self-assembly of the guanosine units in ribbons that in turn aggregate in fibrillar or lamellar soft structures. The elucidation of these structures furnishes an explanation to the physical behaviour of guanosine units which display organogelator properties. Chapter 4 will describe photoresponsive self-assembling systems. Numerous research examples have demonstrated that the use of photochromic molecules in supramolecular self-assemblies is the most reasonable method to noninvasively manipulate their degree of aggregation and supramolecular architectures. In section 4.4 we report on the photocontrolled self-assembly of modified guanosine nucleobase E-42: by the introduction of a photoactive moiety at C8 it is possible to operate a photocontrol over the self-assembly of the molecule, where the existence of G-quartets can be alternately switched on and off. In section 4.5 we focus on the use of cyclodextrins as photoresponsive host-guest assemblies: αCD–azobenzene conjugates 47-48 (section 4.5.3) are synthesized in order to obtain a photoresponsive system exhibiting a fine photocontrollable degree of aggregation and self-assembled architecture. Finally, Chapter 5 contains the experimental protocols used for the research described in Chapters 2-4.

Porous Polymeric Bioresorbable Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

Tissue engineering is a discipline that aims at regenerating damaged biological tissues by using a cell-construct engineered in vitro made of cells grown into a porous 3D scaffold. The role of the scaffold is to guide cell growth and differentiation by acting as a bioresorbable temporary substrate that will be eventually replaced by new tissue produced by cells. As a matter or fact, the obtainment of a successful engineered tissue requires a multidisciplinary approach that must integrate the basic principles of biology, engineering and material science. The present Ph.D. thesis aimed at developing and characterizing innovative polymeric bioresorbable scaffolds made of hydrolysable polyesters. The potentialities of both commercial polyesters (i.e. poly-e-caprolactone, polylactide and some lactide copolymers) and of non-commercial polyesters (i.e. poly-w-pentadecalactone and some of its copolymers) were explored and discussed. Two techniques were employed to fabricate scaffolds: supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) foaming and electrospinning (ES). The former is a powerful technology that enables to produce 3D microporous foams by avoiding the use of solvents that can be toxic to mammalian cells. The scCO2 process, which is commonly applied to amorphous polymers, was successfully modified to foam a highly crystalline poly(w-pentadecalactone-co-e-caprolactone) copolymer and the effect of process parameters on scaffold morphology and thermo-mechanical properties was investigated. In the course of the present research activity, sub-micrometric fibrous non-woven meshes were produced using ES technology. Electrospun materials are considered highly promising scaffolds because they resemble the 3D organization of native extra cellular matrix. A careful control of process parameters allowed to fabricate defect-free fibres with diameters ranging from hundreds of nanometers to several microns, having either smooth or porous surface. Moreover, versatility of ES technology enabled to produce electrospun scaffolds from different polyesters as well as “composite” non-woven meshes by concomitantly electrospinning different fibres in terms of both fibre morphology and polymer material. The 3D-architecture of the electrospun scaffolds fabricated in this research was controlled in terms of mutual fibre orientation by properly modifying the instrumental apparatus. This aspect is particularly interesting since the micro/nano-architecture of the scaffold is known to affect cell behaviour. Since last generation scaffolds are expected to induce specific cell response, the present research activity also explored the possibility to produce electrospun scaffolds bioactive towards cells. Bio-functionalized substrates were obtained by loading polymer fibres with growth factors (i.e. biomolecules that elicit specific cell behaviour) and it was demonstrated that, despite the high voltages applied during electrospinning, the growth factor retains its biological activity once released from the fibres upon contact with cell culture medium. A second fuctionalization approach aiming, at a final stage, at controlling cell adhesion on electrospun scaffolds, consisted in covering fibre surface with highly hydrophilic polymer brushes of glycerol monomethacrylate synthesized by Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization. Future investigations are going to exploit the hydroxyl groups of the polymer brushes for functionalizing the fibre surface with desired biomolecules. Electrospun scaffolds were employed in cell culture experiments performed in collaboration with biochemical laboratories aimed at evaluating the biocompatibility of new electrospun polymers and at investigating the effect of fibre orientation on cell behaviour. Moreover, at a preliminary stage, electrospun scaffolds were also cultured with tumour mammalian cells for developing in vitro tumour models aimed at better understanding the role of natural ECM on tumour malignity in vivo.

Sviluppo e caratterizzazione di impianti e membrane polimeriche per la medicina rigenerativa

Nell’ambito di questa Tesi sono state affrontate le fasi di progettazione, sviluppo e caratterizzazione di materiali biomimetici innovativi per la realizzazione di membrane e/o costrutti 3D polimerici, come supporti che mimano la matrice extracellulare, finalizzati alla rigenerazione dei tessuti. Partendo dall’esperienza di ISTEC-CNR e da un’approfondita conoscenza chimica su polimeri naturali quali il collagene, è stata affrontata la progettazione di miscele polimeriche (blends) a base di collagene, addizionato con altri biopolimeri al fine di ottimizzarne i parametri meccanici e la stabilità chimica in condizioni fisiologiche. I polimeri naturali chitosano ed alginato, di natura polisaccaridica, già noti per la loro biocompatibilità e selezionati come additivi rinforzanti per il collagene, si sono dimostrati idonei ad interagire con le catene proteiche di quest’ultimo formando blends omogenei e stabili. Al fine di ottimizzare l’interazione chimica tra i polimeri selezionati, sono stati investigati diversi processi di blending alla base dei quali è stato applicato un processo complesso di co-fibrazione-precipitazione: sono state valutate diverse concentrazioni dei due polimeri coinvolti e ottimizzato il pH dell’ambiente di reazione. A seguito dei processi di blending, non sono state registrate alterazioni sostanziali nelle caratteristiche chimiche e nella morfologia fibrosa del collagene, a riprova del fatto che non hanno avuto luogo fenomeni di denaturazione della sua struttura nativa. D’altro canto entrambe le tipologie di compositi realizzati, possiedano proprietà chimico-fisiche peculiari, simili ma non identiche a quelle dei polimeri di partenza, risultanti di una reale interazione chimica tra le due molecole costituenti il blending. Per entrambi i compositi, è stato osservato un incremento della resistenza all’attacco dell’enzima collagenasi ed elevato grado di swelling, quest’ultimo lievemente inferiore per il dispositivo contenente chitosano. Questo aspetto, negativo in generale per quanto concerne la progettazione di impianti per la rigenerazione dei tessuti, può avere aspetti positivi poiché la minore permeabilità nei confronti dei fluidi corporei implica una maggiore resistenza verso enzimi responsabili della degradazione in vivo. Studi morfologici al SEM hanno consentito di visualizzare le porosità e le caratteristiche topografiche delle superfici evidenziando in molti casi morfologie ibride che confermano il buon livello d’interazione tra le fasi; una più bassa omogeneità morfologica si è osservata nel caso dei composti collagene-alginato e solo dopo reidratazione dello scaffold. Per quanto riguarda le proprietà meccaniche, valutate in termini di elasticità e resistenza a trazione, sono state rilevate variazioni molto basse e spesso dentro l’errore sperimentale per quanto riguarda il modulo di Young; discorso diverso per la resistenza a trazione, che è risultata inferiore per i campione di collagene-alginato. Entrambi i composti hanno comunque mostrato un comportamento elastico con un minore pre-tensionamento iniziale, che li rendono promettenti nelle applicazioni come impianti per la rigenerazione di miocardio e tendini. I processi di blending messi a punto nel corso della ricerca hanno permesso di ottenere gel omogenei e stabili per mezzo dei quali è stato possibile realizzare dispositivi con diverse morfologie per diversi ambiti applicativi: dispositivi 2D compatti dall’aspetto di membrane semitrasparenti idonei per rigenerazione del miocardio e ligamenti/tendini e 3D porosi, ottenuti attraverso processi di liofilizzazione, con l’aspetto di spugne, idonei alla riparazione/rigenerazione osteo-cartilaginea. I test di compatibilità cellulare con cardiomioblasti, hanno dimostrato come entrambi i materiali compositi realizzati risultino idonei a processi di semina di cellule differenziate ed in grado di promuovere processi di proliferazione cellulare, analogamente a quanto avviene per il collagene puro.

Sviluppo di impianti ceramici biomimetici a porosità controllata per la rigenerazione del tessuto osseo

La presente ricerca si inquadra nell’ambito della risoluzione dei problemi legati alla chirurgia ossea, per la cura e la sostituzione di parti di osso in seguito a fratture, lesioni gravi, malformazioni e patologie quali osteoporosi, tumori, etc… Attualmente la progettazione di impianti per le sostituzioni/rigenerazioni ossee richiede che i materiali sviluppati siano in grado di “mimare” la composizione e la morfologia dei tessuti naturali, in modo da generare le specifiche interazioni chimiche esistenti nei tessuti dell’organismo con cui vengono a contatto e quindi di biointegrarsi e/o rigenerare l’osso mancante nel miglior modo possibile, in termini qualitativi e quantitativi. Per lo sviluppo di sostituti ossei porosi sono state sperimentate 2 tecnologie innovative: il freeze-casting ed il foaming. Gli impianti ceramici realizzati hanno presentano una dimensione dei pori ed un’interconnessione adeguata sia per l’abitazione cellulare che per la penetrazione dei fluidi fisiologici e la vascolarizzazione. In particolare l’elevata unidirezionalità nei campioni ottenuti mediante freeze-casting si presenta molto promettente poiché fornisce cammini guida che migliorano la vascolarizzazione dell’impianto e l’abitazione cellulare in tempi rapidi e nella parte più interna dello scaffold. D’altra parte, la tecnologia del foaming ha permesso l’ottenimento di materiali apatitici ad alta porosità multidimensionale ed interconnessa con proprietà meccaniche implementate rispetto a tipologie precedenti e, lavorabili dopo sinterizzazione mediante prototipazione rapida. Per questo motivo, questi materiali sono attualmente in corso di sperimentazione, con risultati preliminari adeguati promettenti per un’applicazione clinica, come sostituti ossei di condilo mandibolare, sito estremamente critico per gli sforzi meccanici presenti. È stata dimostrata la possibilità di utilizzare lo scaffold ceramico biomimetico con la duplice funzione di sostituto osseo bioattivo e sistema di rilascio in situ di ioni specifici e di antibiotico, in cui la cinetica di rilascio risulta fortemente dipendente dalle caratteristiche chimico-fisico morfologiche del dispositivo (solubilità, area di superficie specifica,…). Per simulare sempre di più la composizione del tessuto osseo e per indurre specifiche proprietà funzionali, è stata utilizzata la gelatina come fase proteica con cui rivestire/impregnare dispositivi porosi 3D a base di apatite, con cui miscelare direttamente la fase inorganica calcio-fosfatica e quindi realizzare materiali bio-ibridi in cui le due fasi contenenti siano intimamente interagenti. Inoltre al fine di ridurre gli innumerevoli problemi legati alle infezioni ossee alcuni dei materiali sviluppati sono stati quindi caricati con antibiotico e sono state valutate le cinetiche di rilascio. In questa maniera, nel sito dell’impianto sono state associate le funzioni di trasporto e di rilascio di farmaco, alla funzione di sostituzione/rigenerazione ossee. La sperimentazione con la gelatina ha messo in luce proprietà posatamente sfruttabili della stessa. Oltre a conferire allo scaffold un implementata mimesi composizionale del tessuto osseo, ha infatti consentito di aumentare le proprietà meccaniche, sia come resistenza a compressione che deformazione. Unitamente a quanto sopra, la gelatina ha consentito di modulare la funzionalità di dispensatore di farmaco; mediante controllo della cinetica di rilascio, tramite processi di reticolazione più o meno spinti.

Azobenzol- und Perylendiimid-funktionalisierte Polyphenylen-Dendrimere

Die Dissertation 'Azobenzol- und Perylendiimid-funktionalisierte Polyphenylen-Dendrimere - Synthese, Charakterisierung und Eigenschaften' gliedert sich in vier Themengebiete. Der erste Abschnitt beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese unterschiedlich dichter Dendrimere um einen Azobenzol-Kern. Einkristallstrukturen und Molekülvisualisierungen verdeutlichen die dreidimensionale Gestalt der Dendrimere. Die Dendrimere zeigen erstmalig eine Abhängigkeit des Isomerisationsverhaltens von der das Chromophor umgebenden Struktur. Der zweite Abschnitt hat Interaktionen von Chromophoren, deren Distanz und Orientierung zueinander gezielt durch einen äußeren Impuls geändert werden können, zum Thema. Die Verbindung von Azobenzol und PMI führt durch deren gegenseitige Beeinflussung zu einem Verlust der charakteristischen Eigenschaften der Chromophore. Eine Oligo-L-Lysinkette, deren Enden mit NMI und PMI funktionalisiert sind, stellt ein FRET-System dar. Distanz und Orientierung der Chromophore zueinander werden durch den mittels TFE induzierten Übergang des Peptids vom Knäuel zur Helix verändert. Der dritte Abschnitt führt die Synthese von PDI-gekernten Dendrimeren durch Substitution in der bay-Region des Chromophors ein. Die Eignenschaften der Verbindungen wurden mittels optischer Methoden und cyclovoltammetrischen Studien untersucht. Weiter wurde die Oberflächenfunktionalisierung mit Aminosäuren und Oligopeptiden zu wasserlöslichen Dendrimeren mit hoher Oberflächenladung verfolgt. Das letzte Kapitel stellt Untersuchungen zur Organisation von Polyphenylen-Dendrimeren auf HOPG vor. Es lassen sich einerseits Nanofasern formieren, andererseits können auch geordnete Mono- und Multilagen erzeugt werden.

Funktionalisierte Polyphenylen-Dendrimere als nanoskopische Bausteine in der Sensorik

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese funktionalisierter Polyphenylen-Dendrimere für den Einsatz als Nanobausteine in übermolekularen 3-D Aggregaten für potentielle sensorische Anwendungen. Im ersten Teil werden zwei Konzepte zur Synthese von funktionalisierten Cyclopentadienonbausteinen vorgestellt: einer führt zu Bausteinen die zur Synthese von peripher-funktionalisierten Polyphenylen-Dendrimere geeignet sind, und ein zweiter Ansatz zielt auf Cyclopentadienonbausteine, die es erlauben Polyphenylen-Dendrimere im Inneren zu funktionalisieren. Für das erste Ziel erwies sich die Suzuki-Kreuzkupplung von Arylboronsäuren und Arylboronsäurenester mit Arylhalogeniden als ein optimales synthetisches Werkzeug. Demgegenüber wurden für das zweite Ziel -methylesterfunktionalisierten Cyclopentadienonbausteine anhand der Knoevenagel-Kondensation von bereits funktionstragenden-Partnern synthetisiert. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden die Synthesen von funktionalisierten Polyphenylen-Dendrimeren vorgestellt. Hierbei kamen zwei verschiedene synthetische Ansätze zum Einsatz: Einerseits wurden durch die Diels-Alder-Addition der funktionalisierten Cyclopentadienonbausteine an ethinylfunktionalisierten Polyphenylen-Grundkörper unterschiedlicher Generation die verfolgten funktionalisierten Zielverbindungen erhalten. Andererseits wurde in bestimmten Fällen die polymeranaloge Konversion von „Übergangsfunktionen“ in einem a posteriori-Funktionalisierungsschritt angewendet. Dementsprechend wurde die Einführung von funktionellen Gruppen möglich die entweder die alkalischen Bedingungen der Knoevenagel – Kondensation oder die hohen Temperaturen der Diels-Alder-Cycloaddition nicht überstehen. Die synthetischen Werkzeuge, die bei der a posteriori-Funktionalisierung zum Einsatz kamen, mussten die vollständige und nebenreaktionsfreie Konversion der Übergangsfunktionen ermöglichen. Als Reaktionen, die dieser Bedingungen genügen, wurden die Williamson –Ethersynthese und die Esterknüpfung nach der DCC-Methode in Verbindung mit hydroxyfunktionalisierten Polyphenylen-Grundkörper und die basische Esterspaltung an methyleseterfunktionalisierten Dendrimeren angewandt. Die aufgezählten Reaktionen führten zu Endprodukten, die ihre Monodispersität beibehielten und eine definierte Anzahl an Funktionalität aufwiesen. Anhand eingehenden Untersuchungen (der Aufbau von Sensorschichten für flüchtige organische Lösungsmittel, die Untersuchungen an elektrostatisch-wechselwirkenden übermolekularen Aggregaten sowie die Einlagerung von Gastmolekülen) wird es ersichtlich dass die synthetisierten Polyphenylen-Dendrimere vielseitig als Nanobausteine zur Erzeugung von funktionalen Materialien von potenzieller Bedeutung sind.

Structural and functional analysis of centromeric chromatin

Animal neocentromeres are defined as ectopic centromeres that have formed in non-centromeric locations and avoid some of the features, like the DNA satellite sequence, that normally characterize canonical centromeres. Despite this, they are stable functional centromeres inherited through generations. The only existence of neocentromeres provide convincing evidence that centromere specification is determined by epigenetic rather than sequence-specific mechanisms. For all this reasons, we used them as simplified models to investigate the molecular mechanisms that underlay the formation and the maintenance of functional centromeres. We collected human cell lines carrying neocentromeres in different positions. To investigate the region involved in the process at the DNA sequence level we applied a recent technology that integrates Chromatin Immuno-Precipitation and DNA microarrays (ChIP-on-chip) using rabbit polyclonal antibodies directed against CENP-A or CENP-C human centromeric proteins. These DNA binding-proteins are required for kinetochore function and are exclusively targeted to functional centromeres. Thus, the immunoprecipitation of DNA bound by these proteins allows the isolation of centromeric sequences, including those of the neocentromeres. Neocentromeres arise even in protein-coding genes region. We further analyzed if the increased scaffold attachment sites and the corresponding tighter chromatin of the region involved in the neocentromerization process still were permissive or not to transcription of within encoded genes. Centromere repositioning is a phenomenon in which a neocentromere arisen without altering the gene order, followed by the inactivation of the canonical centromere, becomes fixed in population. It is a process of chromosome rearrangement fundamental in evolution, at the bases of speciation. The repeat-free region where the neocentromere initially forms, progressively acquires extended arrays of satellite tandem repeats that may contribute to its functional stability. In this view our attention focalized to the repositioned horse ECA11 centromere. ChIP-on-chip analysis was used to define the region involved and SNPs studies, mapping within the region involved into neocentromerization, were carried on. We have been able to describe the structural polymorphism of the chromosome 11 centromeric domain of Caballus population. That polymorphism was seen even between homologues chromosome of the same cells. That discovery was the first described ever. Genomic plasticity had a fundamental role in evolution. Centromeres are not static packaged region of genomes. The key question that fascinates biologists is to understand how that centromere plasticity could be combined to the stability and maintenance of centromeric function. Starting from the epigenetic point of view that underlies centromere formation, we decided to analyze the RNA content of centromeric chromatin. RNA, as well as secondary chemically modifications that involve both histones and DNA, represents a good candidate to guide somehow the centromere formation and maintenance. Many observations suggest that transcription of centromeric DNA or of other non-coding RNAs could affect centromere formation. To date has been no thorough investigation addressing the identity of the chromatin-associated RNAs (CARs) on a global scale. This prompted us to develop techniques to identify CARs in a genome-wide approach using high-throughput genomic platforms. The future goal of this study will be to focalize the attention on what strictly happens specifically inside centromere chromatin.

Polyphenylene dendrimers

The main goals of this work were the design, synthesis, and characterization of new functional polyphenylene dendrimers. Polyphenylene dendrimers are highly branched, monodisperse macromolecules consisting exclusively of benzene rings. They can be obtained in high yield by a repetitive Diels-Alder cycloaddition - deprotection protocol. Their shape-persistent dendritic scaffold allows to obtain nanoparticles with functional groups in defined relative orientation. In the first chapter polyphenylene dendrimers with a pyrene core are presented. The focus of the investigations was upon the shielding efficiency of dendritic shells of different generations upon the pyrene-functionality in the core. The herein presented materials combine high quantum efficiency, good solubility and improved film forming properties making them possible candidates for several applications in electronic devices. The defined functionalization of polyphenylene dendrimers often requires a great synthetic effort, since for every desired function the appropriate building block has to be synthesized. To overcome these disadvantages, a new functionalization concept based upon benzophenone precursors has been developed. This new concept has successfully been applied for the functionalization of the dendritic core, the dendrimer shell, and the dendrimer surface. To investigate the accessibility and reactivity of the embedded groups, many functions of different size and nature were introduced. Moreover, suitable precursors for the synthesis of dendrimer entrapped species, trityl cations, trityl radicals, and ketyl radical anions, were obtained. The combination of the synthetic protocols of core- and surface-functionalization resulted in a new type of functional molecules, highly interesting from the point of electron transfer processes. A polyphenylene dendron was used to arrange a triphenylamine donor and a perylene acceptor moiety in a defined spatial distance and orientation. The in-depth photophysical investigation of a first model compound is reported. The herein presented functionalized dendrimers are highly interesting as well from the point of view of fundamental research (looking into the optic and electronic properties of such unique shape persistent structures) as from the point of view of their potential application as tailor-made nanomaterials in the field of optoelectronics.

Selektiv deblockierbare 2,6-Diamino-2,6-didesoxy-D-glucose-Scaffolds für die kombinatorische Synthese potentieller RNA-Liganden

Aminoglydosid-Antibiotika wie Neomycin B oder Cyclopeptid-Antibiotike wie Viaomycin sind dafür bekannt, daß sie selektiv an RNA binden können. Diese Interaktionen beruhen sowohl auf elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen als auch auf H-Brücken-Bindungen. Des weiteren ist die definierte räumliche Anordnung von Donor- und Akzeptor-Resten in den Strukturen der RNA-Liganden wichtig für die Affinität. Eine Möglichkeit natürliche RNA-Liganden zu imitieren ist der Einsatz polyfunktioneller Template wie zum Beispiel das 2,6-Diamino-2,6-didesoxy-D-glucose-Scaffold. Mit Hilfe dieser Scaffolds können dann verschiedene positv geladene Reste und Donatoren sowie Akzeptoren für H-Brücken-Bindungen oder auch Interkalatoren räumlich definiert präsentiert werden. Für die unabhängige Funktionalisierung einer jeden Position ist ein Satz orthogonal stabiler Schutzgruppen nötig, wobei eine Hydroxylguppe durch einen Anker ersetzt wird, der eine Anbindung des Scaffolds an einen polymeren Träger ermöglicht. Das neu entwickelte 2,6-Diamino-2,6-didesoxy-D-glucose-Scaffold ist das erste Monosaccharid-Templat, das in allen fünf Positionen mit orthogonal stabilen Schutzgruppen blockiert ist. Alle Positionen könne in beliebiger Reihenfolge selektiv deblockiert und anschließend derivatisiert werden. Das Scaffold kann mit Aminosäuren, Guanidinen oder Interkalatoren umgesetzt werden, um so natürlich vorkommende RNA-bindende Aminoglycoside oder Peptide zu imitieren. Aufbauend auf diesem Monosaccharid-Templat wurde eine Bibliothek von über 100 potentiellen RNA-Liganden synthetisiert, die im Rahmen des Sonderforschungsbereichs 579 (RNA-Liganden-Wechselwirkungen) in Zellassays auf ihre Fähigkeit zur Hemmung der Tat/TAR-Wechselwirkung untersucht wurden, wobei bis jetzt 9 Verbindungen mit einer hemmenden Wirkung im micromolaren Bereich gefunden wurden.

Multichromophore Systeme auf Basis von Rylencarbonsäureimiden

Die Leistung multichromophorer Systeme geht oftmals über die der einzelnen Chromophor-Einheiten hinaus. Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation mit dem Titel „Multichromophore Systeme auf Basis von Rylencarbonsäureimiden“ war daher die Synthese und Charakterisierung multichromophorer Molekülarchitekturen. Die verwendeten Rylenfarbstoffe zeichnen sich durch hohe photochemische Stabilitäten sowie nahezu quantitative Fluoreszenzquantenausbeuten aus. Die optischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften multichromophorer Systeme hängen stark von der geometrischen Ordnung ab, in der die Farbstoffe zueinander stehen. Daher wurden für den Einbau formpersistente Gerüststrukturen gewählt. Der erste Teil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Einbau ein und desselben Chromophortyps und hat neben dem Verständnis von Chromophor-Wechselwirkungen vor allem die Erhöhung des Absorptionsquerschnitts und der Fluoreszenzintensität zum Ziel. Als Gerüststruktur dienen dabei Polyphenylen-Dendrimere, Ethinyl-verbrückte Dendrimere sowie Übergangsmetall-vermittelte supramolekulare Strukturen. Aufgrund der hohen Farbstoffanzahl, des ortsdefinierten Einbaus und den hohen Fluoreszenzquantenausbeuten eignen sich diese multichromophoren Systeme als Fluoreszenzsonden und als Einzelphotonenemitter. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden verschiedene Chromophortypen zu multichromophoren Systemen verknüpft, mit deren Hilfe ein vektorieller Energietransfer möglich ist. Mit Hinsicht auf die Verwendung in photovoltaischen Zellen wurde eine dendritische Triade dargestellt. Eine lineare Variante einer Rylen-Triade stellt einen molekularen Draht dar, deren Brückenelement durch eine geeignete Syntheseführung verlängert und der Energietransport daher abstandsabhängig untersucht werden kann.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of substituted naphthalene diimides as anticancer agents

It has been proved that naphthalene diimide (NDI) derivatives display anticancer properties as intercalators and G-quadruplex-binding ligands, leading to DNA damage, senescence and down-regulation of oncogene expression. This thesis deals with the design and synthesis of disubstituted and tetrasubstituted NDI derivatives endowed with anticancer activity, interacting with DNA together with other targets implicated in cancer development. Disubstituted NDI compounds have been designed with the aim to provide potential multitarget directed ligands (MTDLs), in order to create molecules able to simultaneously interact with some of the different targets involved in this pathology. The most active compound, displayed antiproliferative activity in submicromolar range, especially against colon and prostate cancer cell lines, the ability to bind duplex and quadruplex DNA, to inhibit Taq polymerase and telomerase, to trigger caspase activation by a possible oxidative mechanism, to downregulate ERK 2 protein and to inhibit ERKs phosphorylation, without acting directly on microtubules and tubuline. Tetrasubstituted NDI compounds have been designed as G-quadruplex-binding ligands endowed with anticancer activity. In order to improve the cellular uptake of the lead compound, the N-methylpiperazine moiety have been replaced with different aromatic systems and methoxypropyl groups. The most interesting compound was 1d, which was able to interact with the G-quadruplexes both telomeric and in HSP90 promoter region, and it has been co-crystallized with the human telomeric G-quadruplex, to directly verify its ability to bind this kind of structure, and also to investigate its binding mode. All the morpholino substituted compounds show antiproliferative activity in submicromolar values mainly in pancreatic and lung cancer cell lines, and they show an improved biological profile in comparison with that of the lead compound. In conclusion, both these studies, may represent a promising starting point for the development of new interesting molecules useful for the treatment of cancer, underlining the versatility of the NDI scaffold.

Small Molecules as Modulators of Different Targets Involved in Tumor Progression

Tumor is a lesion that may be formed by an abnormal growth of neoplastic cells. Many factors increase the risk of cancer and different targets are involved in tumor progression. Within this thesis, we have addressed two different biological targets, independently connected with tumor formation, e.g. Hsp90 and androgen receptor. The ATP-dependent chaperone Hsp90 is responsible for the conformational maturation and the renaturation of proteins. “Client” proteins are associated with the cancer hallmarks, as cell proliferation and tumor progression. Consequently, Hsp90 has evolved into promising anticancer target. Over the past decade, radicicol has been identified as potential anticancer agent targeting Hsp90, but it is not active in vivo. With that aim of obtaining radicicol-related derivatives, we developed the design and synthesis of new chalcones analogs. Chalcones, which are abundant in edible plants, own a diverse array of pharmacological activities and are considered a versatile scaffold for drug design. Antiproliferative assays and western blot analysis on the new compounds showed that some of those display an interesting cytotoxic effect and the ability to modulate Hsp90 client proteins expression. Androgen Receptor (AR) hypersensitivity plays crucial role in prostate cancer, which progression is stimulated by androgens. The therapy consists in a combination of surgical or chemical castration, along with antiandrogens treatment. Casodex® (bicalutamide), is the most widespread antiandrogen used in clinic. However, hormonal therapy is time-limited since many patients develop resistance. Commercially available antiandrogens show a common scaffold, e.g. two substituted aromatic rings linked by a linear or a cyclic spacer. With the aim of obtaining novel pure AR antagonists, we developed a new synthetic methodology, which allowed us to introduce, as linker between two suitably chosen aromatic rings, a triazole moiety. Preliminary data suggest that the herein reported new molecules generally decrease PSA expression, thus confirming their potential AR antagonistic activity.