Conflict, Peace and Security in Africa: an Assessment and New Questions After 50 Years of African Independence

Since the independence processes in the African continent, armed conflicts, peace and security have raised concern and attention both at the domestic level and at the international scale. In recent years, all aspects have undergone significant changes which have given rise to intense debate. The end of some historical conflicts has taken place in a context of slight decrease in the number of armed conflicts and the consolidation of post-conflict reconstruction processes. Moreover, African regional organizations have staged an increasingly more active internal shift in matters related to peace and security, encouraged by the idea of promoting “African solutions to African problems”. This new scenario, has been accompanied by new uncertainties at the security level and major challenges at the operational level, especially for the African Union. This article aims to ascertain the state of affairs on all these issues and raise some key questions to consider.

Monoclonal antibodies for the identification of New World Leishmania species

Monoclonal antibodies specific for selected species complexes of Leishmania have been employed for the characterization of several representative strains of Leishmania isolated from different hosts and localities in the Americas. In the past 15 years, data have been accumulated concerning (i) the specificities of a number of these monoclonal antibodies and (ii) the antigenic variation (level of the expressed antigenic determinants) occurring among New World Leishmania species or strain variants as recognized by the monoclonal antibodies. This report is an attempt to summarize in brief the data accumulated to date on these points and to indicate the directions for future applications of these specific monoclonal antibodies for identification of leishmanial isolates.

The Security Council and the Legitimacy of the Use of Force: Legal, Normative, and Social Aspects.

Tal i com estableix la Carta de les Nacions Unides, el Consell de Seguretat determina l’existència d’una amenaça a la pau, un trencament de la pau o un acte d’agressió i decideix les mesures que han de fer-se servir per restaurar la pau i seguretat internacionals, també l’ús de la força. L’objectiu d’aquest article és explorar la legitimitat d’aquest ús de la força. Amb aquest objectiu, el text parteix d’una definició centrada en les seves dimensions legal, normativa i social. En segon lloc, s’analitzarà com aquestes dimensions estan representades als debats del Consell de Seguretat de la guerra d’Irak de 2003, un dels usos de la força més controvertits i que més debat ha generat als darrers anys. Finalment, l’anàlisi proposat permet treure algunes conclusions sobre les bases canviants de la legitimitat de l’ús de la força.

Alterations of Neuromuscular Function after the World's Most Challenging Mountain Ultra-Marathon.

We investigated the physiological consequences of the most challenging mountain ultra-marathon (MUM) in the world: a 330-km trail run with 24000 m of positive and negative elevation change. Neuromuscular fatigue (NMF) was assessed before (Pre-), during (Mid-) and after (Post-) the MUM in experienced ultra-marathon runners (n = 15; finish time  = 122.43 hours ±17.21 hours) and in Pre- and Post- in a control group with a similar level of sleep deprivation (n = 8). Blood markers of muscle inflammation and damage were analyzed at Pre- and Post-. Mean ± SD maximal voluntary contraction force declined significantly at Mid- (-13±17% and -10±16%, P<0.05 for knee extensor, KE, and plantar flexor muscles, PF, respectively), and further decreased at Post- (-24±13% and -26±19%, P<0.01) with alteration of the central activation ratio (-24±24% and -28±34% between Pre- and Post-, P<0.05) in runners whereas these parameters did not change in the control group. Peripheral NMF markers such as 100 Hz doublet (KE: -18±18% and PF: -20±15%, P<0.01) and peak twitch (KE: -33±12%, P<0.001 and PF: -19±14%, P<0.01) were also altered in runners but not in controls. Post-MUM blood concentrations of creatine kinase (3719±3045 Ul·(1)), lactate dehydrogenase (1145±511 UI·L(-1)), C-Reactive Protein (13.1±7.5 mg·L(-1)) and myoglobin (449.3±338.2 µg·L(-1)) were higher (P<0.001) than at Pre- in runners but not in controls. Our findings revealed less neuromuscular fatigue, muscle damage and inflammation than in shorter MUMs. In conclusion, paradoxically, such extreme exercise seems to induce a relative muscle preservation process due likely to a protective anticipatory pacing strategy during the first half of MUM and sleep deprivation in the second half.

New trends in world wine consumption and its impact on the Spanish wineries during the second half of the twentieth century

The main goal of this research is explain the impact of the new trends of wine consumption, and the way these enterprises adapted to the circumstances. The hypothesis is that the Spanish companies had to start a deep and traumatic restructuring process, with the aim of surviving adequately in the changeable wine national and international markets. Heavy technological investments were made, with serious finance problems, during the eighties and nineties. We will see this from two specific cases, the Cooperatives "San Isidro" and "Rosario", located in the Region of Murcia, in the Spanish southeast.

Cultural relativism in the Universal Periodic Review of the Human Rights Council

This Working Paper aims to offer an up-to-date list of cultural relativist players and arguments with respect to human rights, constituted by China, Viet Nam, Myanmar, Iran, Pakistan, Yemen, Syria, Malaysia and Cuba. This working paper argues that Indonesia, Iraq, Colombia and Mexico are not in the same cultural relativist group of states maintained by renowned scholars, notably Cristina Cerna and Dianne Otto. As such, apart from this form of cultural relativism based on the respect for the self-determination of indigenous peoples and communities, this working paper exposes two different categories of radical cultural relativism based on revolutionary discourse and/or radical Islamism, as well as targets the credibility on the latter two based on the information facilitated by the United Nations (UN) Human Rights Council (HRC) Universal Periodic Review (UPR).

Genetic Diversity in Natural Populations of New World Leishmania

Our results have shown the wide diversity of parasites within New World Leishmania. Biochemical and molecular characterization of species within the genus has revealed that much of the population heterogeneity has a genetic basis. The source of genetic diversity among Leishmania appears to arise from predominantly asexual, clonal reproduction, although occasional bouts of sexual reproduction can not be ruled out. Genetic variation is extensive with some clones widely distributed and others seemingly unique and localized to a particular endemic focus. Epidemiological studies of leishmaniasis has been directed to the ecology and dynamics of transmission of Leishmania species/variants, particularly in localized areas. Future research using molecular techniques should aim to identify and follow Leishmania types in nature and correlate genetic typing with important clinical characteristics such as virulence, pathogenicity, drug resistance and antigenic variation. The epidemiological significance of such variation not only has important implications for the control of the leishmaniases, but would also help to elucidate the evolutionary biology of the causative agents.

Numerical Taxonomy of Old World Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae): 1. Considerations of Morphological Characters in the Genus Phlebotomus Rondani & Berté 1840

Numerical analyses (correspondence analysis, ascending hierarchical classification, cladistic approach) were applied to the morphological characters of the adults of the genus Phlebotomus Rondani & Berté 1840. They confirm the reliability of the classic classifications, and also redefine the taxonomic and phylogenetic position of certain taxa. Thus, Spelaeophlebotomus Theodor 1948, Idiophlebotomus Quate & Fairchild 1961 and Australophlebotomus Theodor 1948 deserve generic rank. Among the vectors of leishmaniasis, the subgenus Phlebotomus Rondani & Berté 1840 is probably ancient. The results attribute an intermediate taxonomic and phylogenetic position to the taxa Euphlebotomus Theodor 1948 and Anaphlebotomus Theodor 1948, and reveal the probable artificial nature of the latter. The comparatively large numbers of species of subgenera Paraphlebotomus Theodor 1948, Synphlebotomus Theodor 1948 and, above all, Larroussius Nitzulescu 1931 and Adlerius Nitzulescu 1931, suggest that they are relatively recent. The development of adult morphological characters, the validity of their use in taxonomy and proposals for further studies are discussed.

Numerical Taxonomy of Old World Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae): 2. Restatement of Classification upon Subgeneric Morphological Characters

Numerical analyses (correspondence analysis, ascending hierarchical classification, and cladistics) were done with morphological characters of adult phlebotomine sand flies. The resulting classification largely confirms that of classical taxonomy for supra-specific groups from the Old World, though the positions of some groups are adjusted. The taxa Spelaeophlebotomus Theodor 1948, Idiophlebotomus Quate & Fairchild 1961, Australophlebotomus Theodor 1948 and Chinius Leng 1987 are notably distinct from other Old World groups, particularly from the genus Phlebotomus Rondani & Berté 1840. Spelaeomyia Theodor 1948 and, in particular, Parvidens Theodor & Mesghali 1964 are clearly separate from Sergentomyia França & Parrot 1920.

Physical activity in 22 African countries: results from the World Health Organization STEPwise approach to chronic disease risk factor surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Baseline physical activity data are needed to effectively plan programs and policies to prevent noncommunicable diseases, but for many African countries these data are lacking. PURPOSE: To describe and compare levels and patterns of physical activity among adults across 22 African countries. METHODS: Data from 57,038 individuals from 22 countries (11 national and 11 subnational samples) that participated in the STEPwise approach to chronic disease risk factor surveillance (2003-2009) were analyzed in 2010. The validated Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) was used to assess days and duration of physical activity at work, for transport, and during leisure time in a typical week. RESULTS: Overall, 83.8% of men and 75.7% of women met WHO physical activity recommendations (at least 150 minutes of moderate activity per week or equivalent). Country prevalence ranged from 46.8% (Mali) to 96.0% (Mozambique). Physical activity, both at work and for transport, including walking, had large contributions to overall physical activity, while physical activity during leisure time was rare in the analyzed countries. CONCLUSIONS: Physical activity levels varied greatly across African countries and population subgroups. Leisure time activity was consistently low. These data will be useful to inform policymakers and to guide interventions to promote physical activity.