Morphology and charge transport in conjugated polymers

To assist rational compound design of organic semiconductors, two problems need to be addressed. First, the material morphology has to be known at an atomistic level. Second, with the morphology at hand, an appropriate charge transport model needs to be developed in order to link charge carrier mobility to structure.rnrnThe former can be addressed by generating atomistic morphologies using molecular dynamics simulations. However, the accessible range of time- and length-scales is limited. To overcome these limitations, systematic coarse-graining methods can be used. In the first part of the thesis, the Versatile Object-oriented Toolkit for Coarse-graining Applications is introduced, which provides a platform for the implementation of coarse-graining methods. Tools to perform Boltzmann inversion, iterative Boltzmann inversion, inverse Monte Carlo, and force-matching are available and have been tested on a set of model systems (water, methanol, propane and a single hexane chain). Advantages and problems of each specific method are discussed.rnrnIn partially disordered systems, the second issue is closely connected to constructing appropriate diabatic states between which charge transfer occurs. In the second part of the thesis, the description initially used for small conjugated molecules is extended to conjugated polymers. Here, charge transport is modeled by introducing conjugated segments on which charge carriers are localized. Inter-chain transport is then treated within a high temperature non-adiabatic Marcus theory while an adiabatic rate expression is used for intra-chain transport. The charge dynamics is simulated using the kinetic Monte Carlo method.rnrnThe entire framework is finally employed to establish a relation between the morphology and the charge mobility of the neutral and doped states of polypyrrole, a conjugated polymer. It is shown that for short oligomers, charge carrier mobility is insensitive to the orientational molecular ordering and is determined by the threshold transfer integral which connects percolating clusters of molecules that form interconnected networks. The value of this transfer integral can be related to the radial distribution function. Hence, charge mobility is mainly determined by the local molecular packing and is independent of the global morphology, at least in such a non-crystalline state of a polymer.

Triphenylene-based polymers for organic electronics

An efficient synthesis has been developed toward a novel series of conjugated blue emitting polymers containing triphenylene as repeating unit for polymer light emitting diodes (PLEDs). Soluble triphenylene-based co- and homo-polymers have been synthesized by the palladium-catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura and the nickel-catalysed Yamamoto polycondensation reactions, respectively. The photophysical properties as well as the application of the polymers in PLED devices are presented here.rnIn addition a simple GNR fabrication method that allows for the production of atomically precise GNRs of different topologies and widths is introduced. This bottom-up approach consists in the surface-assisted coupling of suitably designed molecular triphenylene precursors into linear polyphenylenes and their subsequent cyclodehydrogenation and results in GNRs whose topology, width and edge periphery are defined by the precursor monomers. Various types of atomically precise GNRs thus eventually become available for experimental investigation and exploitation of their many predicted and technologically highly interesting properties. Furthermore, it is anticipated that this bottom-up approach of GNR fabrication will allow the engineering of chemical and electronic properties and the yet elusive realization of theoretically predicted structures such as intraribbon quantum dots, superlattice structures, or magnetic devices based on specific GNR edge states.rn

Utilizzo industriale di cfrp (carbon fiber reinforced polymers) nanomodificati con nanofibre prodotte per elettrospinning

Attraverso questo studio sono state indagate le proprietà di compositi laminati in fibra di carbonio (CFRP) nano-modificati con nanofibre in Nylon 6.6, in termini di resistenza al danneggiamento da impatti a bassa velocità (con caratterizzazione Drop Weight at Low Velocity) e di smorzamento della vibrazione (con caratterizzazione a damping). Sono stati indagate due configurazioni di nanorinforzo differenti, confrontate con le prestazioni di provini vergini laminati tradizionalmente. Sono infine state operate delle analisi grafiche delle micrografie di campioni sezionati per trarre conclusioni di carattere tecnologico.

From amphiphilic block copolymers to ferrocenyl-functionalized polymers for biosensoric applications

The present thesis can be divided in three main parts. In all parts new polymer architecturesrnwere synthesized and characterized concerning their special features.rnThe first part will emphasize the advantage of a polystyrene-block-(hyperbranchedrnpolyglycerol) copolymer in comparison to an analogue polystyrene-block-(linear polyglycerol)rncopolymer. Therefore a synthethic route to prepare linear block copolymersrnhas been developed. Two strategies were examined. One strategy was based on thernclassic, sequential anionic polymerization; the second strategy was based on arn“Click-Chemistry” coupling reaction. In a following step glycidol was hypergraftedrnfrom these block copolymers by applying a hypergrafting reaction with glycidol. Thernbehavior of the amphiphilic block copolymers synthesized was studied in differentrnsolvents. Furthermore the polarity of the solvent was changed to form the correspondingrninverse micelles. DLS, SLS, SEC-MALLS-VISCO, AFM and Cyro TEMrnmeasurements were performed to obtain a visual image from the appearance of thernaggregates. It was found that a linear-hyperbranched architecture is necessary, ifrnwell defined, monodisperse aggregates are required, e.g. for the preparation of orderedrnnanoarrays. Linear-linear block copolymers formed only polydisperse aggregates.rnAdditionally it was found that size distribution could be improved dramaticallyrnby passing the aggregates through a SEC column with large pores. The SEC columnsrnacted like a template in which the aggregates adopt a more stable conformation.rnIn the second part anionic polymerization was employed to synthesize silaneendfunctionalizedrnmacromonomers with different molecular weights based on polybutadienernand polyisoprene. These were polymerized by a hydrosilylation reaction inrnbulk to obtain branched polymers, using Karstedt’s catalyst. Surprisingly the additionrnof monofunctional silanes during the polymerization had only a minimal effect concerningrnthe degree of polymerization. It was possible to introduce silanes without increasingrnthe overall number of reaction steps by a very convenient “pseudo-copolymerization”rnmethod. All branched polymers were analyzed by SEC, SEC-MALLS,rnSEC-viscometry, 1H-NMR-spectroscopy and DSC concerning their branching ratio.rnThe branching parameters for the branched polymers exhibited similar characteristicsrnas hyperbranched polymers based on AB2 monomers. Detailed kinetic study showedrnthat the polymerization occurred very rapidly in comparison to the hydrosilylation polymerizationrnof classical AB2 type carbosilanes monomers.rnThe last part will deal with ferrocenyl-functionalized polymers. On the one hand,rnferrocenyl-functionalized polyglycerols (PG) were studied. Esterification of PGs withrndifferent molecular weight using ferrocenemonocarboxylic acid gave the ferrocenylrnfuntionalized polymers in high yields. On the other hand three different block copolymersrnwere prepared with different ratios of styrene to butadiene units (10:1, 4:1, 2:1).rnThe double bonds of the 1,2-PB block were hydrosilylated using silanes bearing onern(HSiMe2Fc) or two (HSiMeFc2) ferrocene units. High degrees of functionalizationrnwere obtained (up to 83 %). In this manner, six different ferrocenyl-rich block copolymersrnwith different fractions of ferrocene were prepared and analyzed, employingrnNMR-spectroscopy, SEC, SEC/MALLS/viscometry, DLS and cyclic voltammetry. Thernredox properties of the studied polymers varied primarily with the nature of the silanernunit attached. Additionally, the redox properties in solution of the studied polymersrnwere influenced by the block length ratio of the block copolymers. Unexpectedly, withrnincreasing block length of the ferrocenyl block the fraction of active ferrocenes decreased.rnNevertheless, in case of thin monolayer films this behaviour was not observed.rnAll polymers (PG and PS-b-PB based) exhibited good electrochemical propertiesrnin a wide range of solvents, which rendered them very interesting for biosensoricrnapplications.

Charge transport properties of organic conjugated polymers for photovoltaic applications

Charge transport in conjugated polymers as well as in bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells made of blends between conjugated polymers, as electron-donors (D), and fullerenes, as electron-acceptors (A), has been investigated. It is shown how charge carrier mobility of a series of anthracene-containing poly(p-phenylene-ethynylene)-alt-poly(p-phenylene-vinylene)s (AnE-PVs) is highly dependent on the lateral chain of the polymers, on a moderate variation of the macromolecular parameters (molecular weight and polydispersity), and on the processing conditions of the films. For the first time, the good ambipolar transport properties of this relevant class of conjugated polymers have been demonstrated, consistent with the high delocalization of both the frontier molecular orbitals. Charge transport is one of the key parameters in the operation of BHJ solar cells and depends both on charge carrier mobility in pristine materials and on the nanoscale morphology of the D/A blend, as proved by the results here reported. A straight correlation between hole mobility in pristine AnE-PVs and the fill factor of the related solar cells has been found. The great impact of charge transport for the performance of BHJ solar cells is clearly demonstrated by the results obtained on BHJ solar cells made of neat-C70, instead of the common soluble fullerene derivatives (PCBM or PC70BM). The investigation of neat-C70 solar cells was motivated by the extremely low cost of non-functionalized fullerenes, compared with that of their soluble derivatives (about one-tenth). For these cells, an improper morphology of the blend leads to a deterioration of charge carrier mobility, which, in turn, increases charge carrier recombination. Thanks to the appropriate choice of the donor component, solar cells made of neat-C70 exhibiting an efficiency of 4.22% have been realized, with an efficiency loss of just 12% with respect to the counterpart made with costly PC70BM.

Structure-property relations in polymers from renewable resources

The present research project focuses its attention on the study of structure-property relations in polymers from renewable sources (bio-based polymers) such as polymers microbially produced, i.e. polyhydrohyalkanoates (PHAs) or chemically synthesized using monomers from renewable sources, i.e. polyammide 11 (PA11). By means of a broad spectrum of experimental techniques, the influence of different modifications on bio-based polymers such as blending with other components, copolymerization with different co-monomers and introduction of branching to yield complex architectures have been investigated. The present work on PHAs focused on the study of the dependence of polymer properties on both the fermentation process conditions (e.g. bacterial strain and carbon substrate used) and the method adopted to recover PHAs from cells. Furthermore, a solvent-free method using an enzyme and chemicals in an aqueous medium, was developed in order to recover PHAs from cells. Such a method allowed to recover PHA granules in their amorphous state, i.e. in native form useful for specific applications (e.g. paper coating). In addition, a commercial PHA was used as polymeric matrix to develop biodegradable and bio-based composites for food packaging applications. Biodegradable, non-toxic, food contact plasticizers and low cost, widely available lignocellulosic fibers (wheat straw fibers) were incorporated in such a polymeric matrix, in order to decrease PHA brittleness and the polymer cost, respectively. As concerns the study of polyamide 11, both the rheological and the solid-state behavior of PA11 star samples with different arm number and length was studied. Introduction of arms in a polymer molecule allows to modulate melt viscosity behavior which is advantageous for industrial applications. Also, several important solid-state properties, in particular mechanical properties, are affected by the presence of branching. Given the importance of using ‘green’ synthetic strategies in polymer chemistry, novel poly(-amino esters), synthesized via enzymatic-catalyzed polymerization, have also been investigated in this work.

Synthesis and characterization of temperature- and light-responsive polymers and block copolymers

In summary, thermoresponsive polyacrylamides with various amounts of different photoswitchable side groups, i. e. azobenzene, salicylideneaniline and fulgimide were successfully prepared. As such, in a first step three different chromophores with an amine functionality were synthesized. The synthesis of the stimuli-responsive materials was based on the RAFT polymerization of activated ester acrylates followed by a polymer analogous reaction with different amines. The procedure has been designed to allow the synthesis of well-defined materials with functional groups. All copolymers prepared in this way showed a LCST in aqueous solution. The LCST was in general decreased by increasing the amount of hydrophobic dye incorporated into the thermoresponsive polymer. However, in the case of the fulgimide, the LCST was hardly affected by the chromophore. For azobenzene containing PNIPAM polymers and analogues, higher LCST values were measured after irradiation of the polymer sample solutions with UV-light (Delta LCSTmax = 7.3°C). A reversible light-induced solubility change within a certain temperature range was possible. In contrast to this, irradiated samples of salicylideneaniline containing thermoresponsive copolymers showed an irreversible increase in the LCST (Delta LCSTmax = 13.0°C). Fulgimide chromophores did not influence the LCST of PNIPAM based copolymers after UV-light exposure.rnSimilar to the thermoresponsive polyacrylamides with azobenzene side groups, poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) [P(OEGMA)] polymers with azobenzene end groups showed a LCST shift upon UV-irradiation. These polymers were synthesized by RAFT polymerization using a functional chain transfer agent (CTA). For this, PFP-CTA was used as a RAFT-agent for end group functionalization of (thermoresponsive) polymers. In contrast to the statistically arranged copolymers with azobenzene side groups, P(OEGMA) polymers with terminal azobenzene showed a linear increase of the LCST shifts with increasing amount of chromophore (Delta LCSTmax = 4.3°C). Noteworthy, the chemical nature of the end group exhibited a strong influence on the LCST in the case of short thermoresponsive P(OEGMA) polymers.rnThe investigation on temperature- and lightresponsive polymers was transferred onto block copolymers capable to self-assemble into polymeric micelles. Therefore, PEO-b-PNIPAM block copolymers with azobenzene moieties were synthesized successfully. These polymers showed a “smart” behavior in aqueous solution, as the reversible formation and disruption of the micelles could either be controlled by temperature or using light as a stimulus. The usefulness of these materials was demonstrated by encapsulation of a hydrophobic dye in the core of the micelle. Such materials might have a great potential as a model system for several technical or biological applications.rnFinally, double thermoresponsive block copolymers forming micellar structures in a certain temperature range with functional end groups could successfully be synthesized. These “smart materials” based on POEGMA-b-PNIPMAM have been demonstrated to be very promising for a temperature selective immobilization on a protein surface. This might be a suitable concept for further biological applications.rnConcluding, different thermoresponsive copolymers and block copolymers with lightresponsive moieties arranged along the backbone or located at the chain ends were successfully prepared and investigated. By controlling the nature of functional groups and their respective incorporation ratios, the LCST could be dialed in precisely. Further, the LCST of the polymers could be triggered by light. A light-controlled disruption of micellar structures could be shown for functional block copolymers. The importance of end groups of thermoresponsive polymers was demonstrated by a temperature-controlled protein-polymer binding of a terminal biotin-functionalized double thermoresponsive polymer. The synthetic approaches and the material properties presented here should be promising for further research and applications beyond this dissertation.rn

Alpha, Omega end group functionalization of RAFT polymers based on pentafluorophenyl esters and methane thiosulfonates

While polymers with different functional groups along the backbone have intensively been investigated, there is still a challenge in orthogonal functionalization of the end groups. Such well-defined systems are interesting for the preparation of multiblock (co) polymers or polymer networks, for bio-conjugation or as model systems for examining the end group separation of isolated polymer chains. rnHere, Reversible Addition Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) polymerization was employed as method to investigate improved techniques for an a, w end group functionalization. RAFT produces polymers terminated in an R group and a dithioester-Z group, where R and Z stem from a suitable chain transfer agent (CTA). rnFor alpha end group functionalization, a CTA with an activated pentafluorophenyl (PFP) ester R group was designed and used for the polymerization of various methacrylate monomers, N-isopropylacrylamide and styrene yielding polymers with a PFP ester as a end group. This allowed the introduction of inert propyl amides, of light responsive diazo compounds, of the dyes NBD, Texas Red, or Oregon Green, of the hormone thyroxin and allowed the formation of multiblocks or peptide conjugates. rnFor w end group functionalization, problems of other techniques were overcome through an aminolysis of the dithioester in the presence of a functional methane thiosulfonate (MTS), yielding functional disulfides. These disulfides were stable under ambient conditions and could be cleaved on demand. Using MTS chemistry, terminal methyl disulfides (enabling self-assembly on planar gold surfaces and ligand substitution on gold and semiconductor nanoparticles), butynyl disulfide end groups (allowing the “clicking” of the polymers onto azide functionalized surfaces and the selective removal through reduction), the bio-target biotin, and the fluorescent dye Texas Red were introduced into polymers. rnThe alpha PFP amidation could be performed under mild conditions, without substantial loss of DTE. This way, a step-wise synthesis produced polymers with two functional end groups in very high yields. rnAs examples, polymers with an anchor group for both gold nanoparticles (AuNP) and CdSe / ZnS semi-conductor nanoparticles (QD) and with a fluorescent dye end group were synthesized. They allowed a NP decoration and enabled an energy transfer from QD to dye or from dye to AuNP. Water-soluble polymers were prepared with two different bio-target end groups, each capable of selectively recognizing and binding a certain protein. The immobilization of protein-polymer-protein layers on planar gold surfaces was monitored by surface plasmon resonance.Introducing two different fluorescent dye end groups enabled an energy transfer between the end groups of isolated polymer chains and created the possibility to monitor the behavior of single polymer chains during a chain collapse. rnThe versatility of the synthetic technique is very promising for applications beyond this work.

Laser heating of polymers

Zur Untersuchung von Effekten beim Laserheizen von Polymeren wurde ein Temperaturmessaufbau entwickelt. Das Messprinzip basiert auf der Auswertung der thermischen Emission. Der Messaufbau besteht aus einer hochauflösenden Kamera, ausgestattet mit Bildverstärker, sowie Interferenzfiltern um eine spektrale Auflösung zu gewährleisten und einem gepulster NIR-Heizlaser. Die Pulsdauer des Lasers liegt in der Größenordnung von 10 µs, der Strahldurchmesser durch entsprechende Fokussierung in der Größenordnung von 10 µm. Mittels Fit des Planck‘schen Strahlungsgesetzes an die aufgenommene thermische Emission konnten 2D Temperaturgraphen erhalten werden. Eine Ortsauflösung von 1 µm und eine Zeitauflösung von 1 µs konnten realisiert werden. In Kombination mit Finite-Elemente-Simulationen wurde mit diesem Aufbau die Laserablation verschiedener Polymere untersucht. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, dass bei Polymeren mit einem Glasübergang im Temperaturbereich zwischen Raum- und Zerfallstemperatur, photomechanische Ablation stattfand. Die Ablationsschwelle lag für diese Polymere mehrere 10 K über dem Glasübergang, weit unter der Zerfallstemperatur aus thermogravimetrischen Experimenten mit typischen Heizraten von 10 K/min. Bei hohen Laserenergien und damit verbundenen hohen Temperaturen konnte dagegen thermischer Zerfall beobachtet werden. Ein Übergang des Mechanismus von photomechanischer Ablation zu Ablation durch thermischen Zerfall ergab sich bei Temperaturen deutlich über der Zerfallstemperatur des Polymers aus der Thermogravimetrie. Dies wurde bedingt durch die kurzen Reaktionszeiten des Laserexperiments in der Größenordnung der Pulsdauer und steht im Einklang mit dem Gesetz von Arrhenius. Polymere ohne Glasübergang im Heizbereich zeigten dagegen keine photomechanische Ablation, sondern ausschließlich thermischen Zerfall. Die Ablationsschwelle lag auch hier bei höheren Temperaturen, entsprechend dem Gesetz von Arrhenius. Hohe Temperaturen, mehrere 100 K über der Zerfallstemperatur, ergaben sich darüber hinaus bei hohen Laserenergien. Ein drastisches Überhitzen des Polymers, wie in der Literatur beschrieben, konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Experimentelle Befunde deuten vielmehr darauf hin, dass es sich bei dem heißen Material um thermische Zerfallsprodukte, Polymerfragmente, Monomer und Zerfallsprodukte des Monomers handelte bzw. das Temperaturprofil der Zerfallsreaktion selbst visualisiert wurde.

Template-assisted patterning of functional polymers

In this thesis, anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes, which provide well-aligned uniform mesoscopic pores with adjustable pore parameters, were fabricated and successfully utilized as templates for the fabrication of functional organic nanowires, nanorods and the respective well-ordered arrays. The template-assisted patterning technique was successfully applied for the realization of different objectives:rnHigh-density and well-ordered arrays of hole-conducting nanorods composed of cross-linked triphenylamine (TPA) and tetraphenylbenzidine (TPD) derivatives on conductive substrates like ITO/glass have been successfully fabricated. By applying a freeze-drying technique to remove the aqueous medium after the wet-chemical etching of the template, aggregation and collapsing of the rods was prevented and macroscopic areas of perfectly freestanding nanorods were feasible. Based on the hole-conducting nanorod arrays and their subsequent embedding into an electron-conducting polymer matrix via spin-coating, a novel routine concept for the fabrication of well-ordered all-organic bulk heterojunction for organic photovoltaic applications was successfully demonstrated. The increased donor/acceptor interface of the fabricated devices resulted in a remarkable increase of the photoluminescence quenching compared to a planar bilayer morphology. Further, the fundamental working principle of the templating approach for the solution-based all-organic photovoltaic device was demonstrated for the first time.rnFurthermore, in order to broaden the applicability of patterned surfaces, which are feasible via the template-based patterning of functional materials, AAO with hierarchically branched pores were fabricated and utilized as templates. By pursuing the common templating process hierarchically polymeric replicas, which show remarkable similarities with interesting biostructures, like the surface of the lotus leaf and the feet of a gecko, were successfully prepared.rnIn contrast to the direct infiltration of organic functional materials, a novel route for the fabrication of functional nanowires via post-modification of reactive nanowires was established. Therefore, reactive nanowires based on cross-linked pentafluorophenylesters were fabricated by utilizing AAO templates. The post-modification with fluorescent dyes was demonstrated. Furthermore, reactive wires were converted into well-dispersed poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) hydrogels, which exhibit a thermal-responsive reversible phase transition. The reversible thermal-responsible swelling of the PNIPAM nanowires exhibited a more than 50 % extended length than in the collapsed PNIPAM state. rnLast but not least, the shape-anisotropic pores of AAO were utilized to uniformly align the mesogens of a nematic liquid crystalline elastomer. Liquid crystalline nanowires with a narrow size distribution and uniform orientation of the liquid crystalline material were fabricated. It was shown that during the transition from the nematic to the isotropic phase the rod’s length shortened by roughly 40 percent. As such these liquid crystalline elastomeric nanowires may find application, as wire-shaped nanoactuators in various fields of research, like lab-on-chip systems, micro fluidics and biomimetics.rn

Phenothiazine based polymers for energy and data storage application

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Synthese und Charakterisierung von Polymeren mit redox-funktionalen Phenothiazin-Seitenketten. Phenothiazin und seine Derivate sind kleine Redoxeinheiten, deren reversibles Redoxverhalten mit electrochromen Eigenschaften verbunden ist. Das besondere an Phenothiazine ist die Bildung von stabilen Radikalkationen im oxidierten Zustand. Daher können Phenothiazine als bistabile Moleküle agieren und zwischen zwei stabilen Redoxzuständen wechseln. Dieser Schaltprozess geht gleichzeitig mit einer Farbveränderung an her.rnrnIm Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird die Synthese neuartiger Phenothiazin-Polymere mittels radikalischer Polymerisation beschrieben. Phenothiazin-Derivate wurden kovalent an aliphatischen und aromatischen Polymerketten gebunden. Dies erfolgte über zwei unterschiedlichen synthetischen Routen. Die erste Route beinhaltet den Einsatz von Vinyl-Monomeren mit Phenothiazin Funktionalität zur direkten Polymerisation. Die zweite Route verwendet Amin modifizierte Phenothiazin-Derivate zur Funktionalisierung von Polymeren mit Aktivester-Seitenketten in einer polymeranalogen Reaktion. rnrnPolymere mit redox-funktionalen Phenothiazin-Seitenketten sind aufgrund ihrer Elektron-Donor-Eigenschaften geeignete Kandidaten für die Verwendung als Kathodenmaterialien. Zur Überprüfung ihrer Eignung wurden Phenothiazin-Polymere als Elektrodenmaterialien in Lithium-Batteriezellen eingesetzt. Die verwendeten Polymere wiesen gute Kapazitätswerte von circa 50-90 Ah/kg sowie schnelle Aufladezeiten in der Batteriezelle auf. Besonders die Aufladezeiten sind 5-10 mal höher als konventionelle Lithium-Batterien. Im Hinblick auf Anzahl der Lade- und Entladezyklen, erzielten die Polymere gute Werte in den Langzeit-Stabilitätstests. Insgesamt überstehen die Polymere 500 Ladezyklen mit geringen Veränderungen der Anfangswerte bezüglich Ladezeiten und -kapazitäten. Die Langzeit-Stabilität hängt unmittelbar mit der Radikalstabilität zusammen. Eine Stabilisierung der Radikalkationen gelang durch die Verlängerung der Seitenkette am Stickstoffatom des Phenothiazins und der Polymerhauptkette. Eine derartige Alkyl-Substitution erhöht die Radikalstabilität durch verstärkte Wechselwirkung mit dem aromatischen Ring und verbessert somit die Batterieleistung hinsichtlich der Stabilität gegenüber Lade- und Entladezyklen. rnrnDes Weiteren wurde die praktische Anwendung von bistabilen Phenothiazin-Polymeren als Speichermedium für hohe Datendichten untersucht. Dazu wurden dünne Filme des Polymers auf leitfähigen Substraten elektrochemisch oxidiert. Die elektrochemische Oxidation erfolgte mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie in Kombination mit leitfähigen Mikroskopspitzen. Mittels dieser Technik gelang es, die Oberfläche des Polymers im nanoskaligen Bereich zu oxidieren und somit die lokale Leitfähigkeit zu verändern. Damit konnten unterschiedlich große Muster lithographisch beschrieben und aufgrund der Veränderung ihrer Leitfähigkeit detektiert werden. Der Schreibprozess führte nur zu einer Veränderung der lokalen Leitfähigkeit ohne die topographische Beschaffenheit des Polymerfilms zu beeinflussen. Außerdem erwiesen sich die Muster als besonders stabil sowohl mechanisch als auch über die Zeit.rnrnZum Schluss wurden neue Synthesestrategien entwickelt um mechanisch stabile als auch redox-funktionale Oberflächen zu produzieren. Mit Hilfe der oberflächen-initiierten Atomtransfer-Radikalpolymerisation wurden gepfropfte Polymerbürsten mit redox-funktionalen Phenothiazin-Seitenketten hergestellt und mittels Röntgenmethoden und Rasterkraftmikroskopie analysiert. Eine der Synthesestrategien geht von gepfropften Aktivesterbürsten aus, die anschließend in einem nachfolgenden Schritt mit redox-funktionalen Gruppen modifiziert werden können. Diese Vorgehensweise ist besonders vielversprechend und erlaubt es unterschiedliche funktionelle Gruppen an den Aktivesterbürsten zu verankern. Damit können durch Verwendung von vernetzenden Gruppen neben den Redoxeigenschaften, die mechanische Stabilität solcher Polymerfilme optimiert werden. rn rn

Solubility, diffusivity and permeability of gases in glassy polymers

Gas separation membranes of high CO2 permeability and selectivity have great potential in both natural gas sweetening and carbon dioxide capture. Many modified PIM membranes results permselectivity above Robinson upper bound. The big problem that should be solved for these polymers to be commercialized is their aging through time. In high glassy polymeric membrane such as PIM-1 and its modifications, solubility selectivity has more contribution towards permselectivity than diffusivity selectivity. So in this thesis work pure and mixed gas sorption behavior of carbon dioxide and methane in three PIM-based membranes (PIM-1, TZPIM-1 and AO-PIM-1) and Polynonene membrane is rigorously studied. Sorption experiment is performed at different temperatures and molar fraction. Sorption isotherms found from the experiment shows that there is a decrease of solubility as the temperature of the experiment increases for both gases in all polymers. There is also a decrease of solubility due to the presence of the other gas in the system in the mixed gas experiments due to competitive sorption effect. Variation of solubility is more visible in methane sorption than carbon dioxide, which will make the mixed gas solubility selectivity higher than that of pure gas solubility selectivity. Modeling of the system using NELF and Dual mode sorption model estimates the experimental results correctly Sorption of gases in heat treated and untreated membranes show that the sorption isotherms don’t vary due to the application of heat treatment for both carbon dioxide and methane. But there is decrease in the diffusivity coefficient and permeability of pure gases due to heat treatment. Both diffusivity coefficient and permeability decreases with increasing of heat treatment temperature. Diffusivity coefficient calculated from transient sorption experiment and steady state permeability experiment is also compared in this thesis work. The results reveal that transient diffusivity coefficient is higher than steady state diffusivity selectivity.

Sulfur-containing polymers for surface attachment

Different concepts for the synthesis of sulfur-containing polymers as well as their adsorption onto gold surfaces were studied. The present work is divided into three parts. The main part focuses on the synthesis of poly(1,2-alkylene sulfides) (“polysulfides”) with complex architectures on the basis of polyether-based macroinitiators by the anionic ring-opening polymerization of ethylene sulfide and propylene sulfide. This synthetic tool kit allowed the synthesis of star-shaped, brush-like, comb-like and pom-pom-like polysulfides, the latter two with an additional poly(ethylene glycol) chain. Additionally, the number of polysulfide arms as well as the monomer composition could be varied over a wide range to obtain copolymers with multiple thioether functionalities.rnThe second section deals with the synthesis of a novel lipoic acid-based initiator for ring-opening polymerizations for lactones and epoxides. A straightforward approach was selected to accomplish the ability to obtain tailored polymers with a common used disulfide-anchoring group, without the drawbacks of post-polymerization functionalization. rnIn the third part, a new class of block-copolymers consisting of polysulfides and polyesters were investigated. For the first time this approach enabled the use of hydroxyl-terminated poly(propylene sulfide) as macroinitiator for the synthesis of a second block.rnThe adsorption efficiency of those different polymer classes onto gold nanoparticles as well as gold rnsupports was studied via different methods.rn

Novel materials for direct X-ray detectors based on semiconducting organic polymers

Conventional inorganic materials for x-ray radiation sensors suffer from several drawbacks, including their inability to cover large curved areas, me- chanical sti ffness, lack of tissue-equivalence and toxicity. Semiconducting organic polymers represent an alternative and have been employed as di- rect photoconversion material in organic diodes. In contrast to inorganic detector materials, polymers allow low-cost and large area fabrication by sol- vent based methods. In addition their processing is compliant with fexible low-temperature substrates. Flexible and large-area detectors are needed for dosimetry in medical radiotherapy and security applications. The objective of my thesis is to achieve optimized organic polymer diodes for fexible, di- rect x-ray detectors. To this end polymer diodes based on two different semi- conducting polymers, polyvinylcarbazole (PVK) and poly(9,9-dioctyluorene) (PFO) have been fabricated. The diodes show state-of-the-art rectifying be- haviour and hole transport mobilities comparable to reference materials. In order to improve the X-ray stopping power, high-Z nanoparticle Bi2O3 or WO3 where added to realize a polymer-nanoparticle composite with opti- mized properities. X-ray detector characterization resulted in sensitivties of up to 14 uC/Gy/cm2 for PVK when diodes were operated in reverse. Addition of nanoparticles could further improve the performance and a maximum sensitivy of 19 uC/Gy/cm2 was obtained for the PFO diodes. Compared to the pure PFO diode this corresponds to a five-fold increase and thus highlights the potentiality of nanoparticles for polymer detector design. In- terestingly the pure polymer diodes showed an order of magnitude increase in sensitivity when operated in forward regime. The increase was attributed to a different detection mechanism based on the modulation of the diodes conductivity.