Mitochondrial DNA supports the identification of two endangered river sharks (Glyphis glyphis and Glyphis garricki) across northern Australia

The river sharks (genus Glyphis) are a small group of poorly known sharks occurring in tropical rivers and estuarine waters across northern Australia, south-east Asia and the subcontinent. The taxonomy of the genus has long been unclear due to very few individuals having been caught and examined, resulting in a paucity of data regarding their distribution, biology and ecology. Only recently has attention focussed on the two Australian species, G. glyphis and G. garricki. This study is a result of a rare opportunity to collate the few samples that have been collected from these species and the bull shark Carcharhinus leucas, which shares an overlapping range. These samples were analysed using the DNA barcoding approach (cox1 mitochondrial gene), compared with six other species of carcharhinids and evaluated in light of the current taxonomic classification. Nine species-specific nucleotide differences were found between G. glyphis and G. garricki and no intra-specific variation provides strong support for the separation into distinct species. Significant differences were also observed at the inter-generic level, with Glyphis forming a distinct clade from Carcharhinus. This study provides the basis for future molecular studies required to better address conservation issues confronting G. glyphis and G. garricki in Australia.

Action learning in partnership with Landcare and catchment management groups to support increased pasture sowings in southern inland Queensland

The incorporation of sown pastures as short-term rotations into the cropping systems of northern Australia has been slow. The inherent chemical fertility and physical stability of the predominant vertisol soils across the region enabled farmers to grow crops for decades without nitrogen fertiliser, and precluded the evolution of a crop–pasture rotation culture. However, as less fertile and less physically stable soils were cropped for extended periods, farmers began to use contemporary farming and sown pasture technologies to rebuild and maintain their soils. This has typically involved sowing long-term grass and grass–legume pastures on the more marginal cropping soils of the region. In partnership with the catchment management authority, the Queensland Murray–Darling Committee (QMDC) and Landcare, a pasture extension process using the LeyGrain™ package was implemented in 2006 within two Grain & Graze projects in the Maranoa-Balonne and Border Rivers catchments in southern inland Queensland. The specific objectives were to increase the area sown to high quality pasture and to gain production and environmental benefits (particularly groundcover) through improving the skills of producers in pasture species selection, their understanding and management of risk during pasture establishment, and in managing pastures and the feed base better. The catalyst for increasing pasture sowings was a QMDC subsidy scheme for increasing groundcover on old cropping land. In recognising a need to enhance pasture knowledge and skills to implement this scheme, the QMDC and Landcare producer groups sought the involvement of, and set specific targets for, the LeyGrain workshop process. This is a highly interactive action learning process that built on the existing knowledge and skills of the producers. Thirty-four workshops were held with more than 200 producers in 26 existing groups and with private agronomists. An evaluation process assessed the impact of the workshops on the learning and skill development by participants, their commitment to practice change, and their future intent to sow pastures. The results across both project catchments were highly correlated. There was strong agreement by producers (>90%) that the workshops had improved knowledge and skills regarding the adaptation of pasture species to soils and climates, enabling a better selection at the paddock level. Additional strong impacts were in changing the attitudes of producers to all aspects of pasture establishment, and the relative species composition of mixtures. Producers made a strong commitment to practice change, particularly in managing pasture as a specialist crop at establishment to minimise risk, and in the better selection and management of improved pasture species (particularly legumes and the use of fertiliser). Producers have made a commitment to increase pasture sowings by 80% in the next 5 years, with fourteen producers in one group alone having committed to sow an additional 4893 ha of pasture in 2007–08 under the QMDC subsidy scheme. The success of the project was attributed to the partnership between QMDC and Landcare groups who set individual workshop targets with LeyGrain presenters, the interactive engagement processes within the workshops themselves, and the follow-up provided by the LeyGrain team for on-farm activities.

Teacher Education, School Effectiveness and Improvement : A Study of Academic and Professional Qualification on Teachers' Job Effectiveness in Nigerian Secondary Schools

This academic work begins with a compact presentation of the general background to the study, which also includes an autobiography for the interest in this research. The presentation provides readers who know little of the topic of this research and of the structure of the educational system as well as of the value given to education in Nigeria. It further concentrates on the dynamic interplay of the effect of academic and professional qualification and teachers' job effectiveness in secondary schools in Nigeria in particular, and in Africa in general. The aim of this study is to produce a systematic analysis and rich theoretical and empirical description of teachers' teaching competencies. The theoretical part comprises a comprehensive literature review that focuses on research conducted in the areas of academic and professional qualification and teachers' job effectiveness, teaching competencies, and the role of teacher education with particular emphasis on school effectiveness and improvement. This research benefits greatly from the functionalist conception of education, which is built upon two emphases: the application of the scientific method to the objective social world, and the use of an analogy between the individual 'organism' and 'society'. To this end, it offers us an opportunity to define terms systematically and to view problems as always being interrelated with other components of society. The empirical part involves describing and interpreting what educational objectives can be achieved with the help of teachers' teaching competencies in close connection to educational planning, teacher training and development, and achieving them without waste. The data used in this study were collected between 2002 and 2003 from teachers, principals, supervisors of education from the Ministry of Education and Post Primary Schools Board in the Rivers State of Nigeria (N=300). The data were collected from interviews, documents, observation, and questionnaires and were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods to strengthen the validity of the findings. The data collected were analyzed to answer the specific research questions and hypotheses posited in this study. The data analysis involved the use of multiple statistical procedures: Percentages Mean Point Value, T-test of Significance, One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and Cross Tabulation. The results obtained from the data analysis show that teachers require professional knowledge and professional teaching skills, as well as a broad base of general knowledge (e.g., morality, service, cultural capital, institutional survey). Above all, in order to carry out instructional processes effectively, teachers should be both academically and professionally trained. This study revealed that teachers are not however expected to have an extraordinary memory, but rather looked upon as persons capable of thinking in the right direction. This study may provide a solution to the problem of teacher education and school effectiveness in Nigeria. For this reason, I offer this treatise to anyone seriously committed in improving schools in developing countries in general and in Nigeria in particular to improve the lives of all its citizens. In particular, I write this to encourage educational planners, education policy makers, curriculum developers, principals, teachers, and students of education interested in empirical information and methods to conceptualize the issue this study has raised and to provide them with useful suggestions to help them improve secondary schooling in Nigeria. Though, multiple audiences exist for any text. For this reason, I trust that the academic community will find this piece of work a useful addition to the existing literature on school effectiveness and school improvement. Through integrating concepts from a number of disciplines, I aim to describe as holistic a representation as space could allow of the components of school effectiveness and quality improvement. A new perspective on teachers' professional competencies, which not only take into consideration the unique characteristics of the variables used in this study, but also recommend their environmental and cultural derivation. In addition, researchers should focus their attention on the ways in which both professional and non-professional teachers construct and apply their methodological competencies, such as their grouping procedures and behaviors to the schooling of students. Keywords: Professional Training, Academic Training, Professionally Qualified, Academically Qualified, Professional Qualification, Academic Qualification, Job Effectiveness, Job Efficiency, Educational Planning, Teacher Training and Development, Nigeria.

Population structure, effective population size and adverse effects of stocking in the endangered Australian eastern freshwater cod Maccullochella ikei

Microsatellite markers were used to examine spatio-temporal genetic variation in the endangered eastern freshwater cod Maccullochella ikei in the Clarence River system, eastern Australia. High levels of population structure were detected. A model-based clustering analysis of multilocus genotypes identified four populations that were highly differentiated by F-statistics (FST = 0· 09 − 0· 49; P < 0· 05), suggesting fragmentation and restricted dispersal particularly among upstream sites. Hatchery breeding programmes were used to re-establish locally extirpated populations and to supplement remnant populations. Bayesian and frequency-based analyses of hatchery fingerling samples provided evidence for population admixture in the hatchery, with the majority of parental stock sourced from distinct upstream sites. Comparison between historical and contemporary wild-caught samples showed a significant loss of heterozygosity (21%) and allelic richness (24%) in the Mann and Nymboida Rivers since the commencement of stocking. Fragmentation may have been a causative factor; however, temporal shifts in allele frequencies suggest swamping with hatchery-produced M. ikei has contributed to the genetic decline in the largest wild population. This study demonstrates the importance of using information on genetic variation and population structure in the management of breeding and stocking programmes, particularly for threatened species.

Sustainable Grazing in the Channel Country Floodplains (phase 2) : A technical report on findings between March 2003 and June 2006

‘Sustainable Grazing in the Channel Country Floodplains’ was initiated by industry to redress the lack of objective information for sustainable management in the floodplains of Cooper Creek and the Diamantina and Georgina Rivers. The project has maintained links with the grazing community and has extensively drawn upon expert local experience and knowledge. The project has provided tools for managers to better anticipate the size of beneficial flooding arising from rains in the upper catchment and to more objectively assess the value of the pasture resulting from flooding. The latest information from the project has enabled customisation of the EDGENetwork™ Grazing Land Management training package for the Channel Country. In combination, these tools will assist in making earlier cattle stocking decisions, including when cattle may need to be mustered out of floodplain paddocks, how many additional cattle will be required to take advantage of the flood–grown pasture, and the timing of cattle turnoff. These will reduce costs by providing a greater lead time to plan cattle movements and purchases, and may enhance the sustainability of the resource base by better matching cattle numbers with the feed on offer.

Flow impacts on estuarine finfish fisheries of the Gulf of Carpentaria

The estuaries of Australia s tropical rivers support commercial fisheries for finfish and shellfish valued at over $220 million per annum. There are also significant tourism-related and local recreational and indigenous fisheries for icon species such as barramundi. Development of water resources in Australia's Tropical Rivers region is being considered for the Flinders, Mitchell, McArthur, Roper, Daly and Victoria catchments. Greater knowledge of the freshwater requirements of tropical aquatic ecosystems, including estuaries is crucial, so that the communities of catchments where water resource development occurs can be assured that the downstream effects of such development are considered and managed based on the best available knowledge.

Nutrient loss and water quality under extensive grazing in the upper Burdekin river catchment, North Queensland

Increased sediment and nutrient losses resulting from unsustainable grazing management in the Burdekin River catchment are major threats to water quality in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon. To test the effects of grazing management on soil and nutrient loss, five 1 ha mini-catchments were established in 1999 under different grazing strategies on a sedimentary landscape near Charters Towers. Reference samples were also collected from watercourses in the Burdekin catchment during major flow events.Soil and nutrient loss were relatively low across all grazing strategies due to a combination of good cover, low slope and low rainfall intensities. Total soil loss varied from 3 to 20 kg haˉ¹ per event while losses of N and P ranged from 10 to 1900 g haˉ¹ and from 1 to 71 g haˉ¹ per event respectively. Water quality of runoff was considered moderate across all strategies with relatively low levels of total suspended sediment (range: 8-1409 mg lˉ¹), total N (range: 101-4000 ug lˉ¹) and total P (range: 14-609 ug lˉ¹). However, treatment differences are likely to emerge with time as the impacts of the different grazing strategies on land condition become more apparent.Samples collected opportunistically from rivers and creeks during flow events displayed significantly higher levels of total suspended sediment (range: 10-6010 mg lˉ¹), total N (range: 650-6350 ug lˉ¹) and total P (range: 50-1500 ug lˉ¹) than those collected at the grazing trial. These differences can largely be attributed to variation in slope, geology and cover between the grazing trial and different catchments. In particular, watercourses draining hillier, grano-diorite landscapes with low cover had markedly higher sediment and nutrient loads compared to those draining flatter, sedimentary landscapes.These preliminary data suggest that on relatively flat, sedimentary landscapes, extensive cattle grazing is compatible with achieving water quality targets, provided high levels of ground cover are maintained. In contrast, sediment and nutrient loss under grazing on more erodable land types is cause for serious concern. Long-term empirical research and monitoring will be essential to quantify the impacts of changed land management on water quality in the spatially and temporally variable Burdekin River catchment.

Recruitment sources of brown trout identified by otolith trace element signatures.

This study examined whether element: Ca ratios within the otoliths of juvenile brown trout could provide accurate trace element signatures for specific natal tributaries, and attempted to match these to trace element natal signatures found within the otoliths of adult trout caught in the main stem rivers of the same catchment. The trace element signatures of juvenile trout otoliths were analysed from a sample of eight tributaries representing the main sub-catchments of the Motueka River catchment, New Zealand. Trace element signatures were determined using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and differentiated using linear discriminant function analysis with an overall cross-validated classification success of 96.8%. Temporal stability in element: Ca ratios was investigated by repeat collections of juvenile fish over two years. Natal signatures from 11 of 23 adult trout sampled from the catchment main stems were matched to one of the eight tributary signatures showing recruitment sources to be spread relatively evenly throughout the catchment. This study demonstrates the potential of using otolith trace element analysis to determine the natal origins of freshwater fish within a catchment.

Bat habitat requirements : implications for land use planning

Knowledge of the habitat requirements of bat species is needed in decision making in land use planning. Bats' hibernation requirements were studied both in Estonia and in southern Finland. In both countries, the northern bat and the brown long-eared bat hibernated in colder and drier locations, whereas Daubenton's bat and Brandt's/whiskered bats hibernated in warmer and more humid locations. In Estonia, the pond bat hibernated in the warmest and most humid conditions, whereas Natterer's bat hibernated in the coldest and driest conditions. Hibernacula were at their coldest in mid-season and became warmer towards the end of the season. The results suggest that bats made an active choice of colder hibernation temperatures at the seasons end. They minimised the negative effects of hibernation early in the hibernation season by hibernating in warmer locations and energy expenditure late in the hibernation season by hibernating in colder locations. The use of foraging habitats was studied in northern and southern Finland. The northern bat used foraging sites opportunistically. Daubenton's bat foraged mainly in water habitats, whereas Brandt's/whiskered bats and the brown long-eared bat foraged mainly in forest habitats. In northern Finland, Daubenton's bats foraged almost exclusively on rivers and typically together with the northern bat. Daubenton's bats and Brandt's/whiskered bats were found only where there were lower ambient light levels. One of the most important things in the management of foraging areas for them is to keep them shady. Hibernacula in Finland typically housed few bats, suggesting that hibernation sites used by even a small number of bats are important. Bats typically used natural stone for hibernation suggesting that natural underground sites in rocks or cliffs or man-made underground sites built using natural stone are important for them. The results suggest that appropriate timing of surveys may vary according to the species and latitude.

Genetic diversity of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) in the Baltic Sea

We described the patterns and extent of microsatellite DNA variation in historical and present-day Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) stocks in the Baltic Sea and neighbouring areas, and in European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) ecotypes, populations and run-timing types in Finland. Moreover, the amount and pattern of genetic diversity in historical salmon populations before human impact were described, and the proportion of diversity maintained in the present hatchery stocks evaluated. Salmon populations in the Baltic Sea were, on average, significantly less variable than eastern Atlantic populations, and the diversity of landlocked populations (Lakes Vänern, Saimaa, Onega and Ladoga) was in turn significantly lower than that of anadromous salmon populations in the Baltic Sea populations. Within the Baltic Sea, the anadromous populations of Atlantic salmon formed three clear groups, corresponding to the northern (Gulf of Bothnia), eastern (Gulf of Finland and eastern Baltic Main Basin) and southern (western Baltic Main Basin) regions. Based on microsatellite data, three salmon population groups in the Baltic Sea were considered potentially different colonization lineages. In short- and long-term breeding programmes of Atlantic salmon, the average observed rate of loss of alleles was 4.9% and 2.0% per generation and the average rate of loss of heterozygosity was 1.4% and 1% per generation, respectively. When comparing the genetic parameters of stocks before and after hatchery breeding of several successive generations (Rivers Iijoki and Oulujoki), statistically significant changes in allele frequencies were common, while large wild stock in the Teno River has remained temporally very stable over 56 years. Despite the observed losses of genetic diversity in broodstock breeding, a large proportion of the genetic resources of the extirpated stocks are still conserved in the broodstocks. Genetic differentiation among European whitefish ecotypes was generally low, thus giving support to the hypothesis of one native European whitefish species in Fennoscandia. Among the ecotypes, the northern, large sparsely rakered, bottom-dwelling whitefish was the most unique. The known genetic differences in quantitative traits have thus either developed independently of potential phylogenetic lineages, or the lineages have mixed and the quantitative traits of the ecotypes, like gill-raker number, have later changed according to environment and selection pressures. Overall, genetic distances between the anadromous whitefish populations along the Finnish coast, especially in the Bothnian Bay area, were small. Wild whitefish populations studied had slightly higher allelic diversity than hatchery-reared populations in corresponding rivers.

A review of the biology, ecology, distribution and control of Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters 1852) (Pisces: Cichlidae) with particular emphasis on invasive Australian populations

Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters 1852) are native to the eastward flowing rivers of central and southern Africa but from the early 1930s they have been widely distributed around the world for aquaculture and for biological control of weeds and insects. While O. mossambicus are now not commonly used as an aquaculture species, the biological traits that made them a popular culture species including tolerance to wide ranging ecological conditions, generalist dietary requirements and rapid reproduction with maternal care have also made them a 'model' invader. Self-sustaining populations now exist in almost every region to which they have been imported. In Australia, since their introduction in the 1970s, O. mossambicus have become established in catchments along the east and west coasts and have the potential to colonise other adjacent drainages. It is thought that intentional translocations are likely to be the most significant factor in their spread in Australia. The ecological and physical tolerances and preferences, reproductive behaviour, hybridization and the high degree of plasticity in the life history traits of O. mossambicus are reviewed. Impacts of O. mossambicus on natural ecosystems including competitive displacement of native species, habitat alteration, predation and as a vector in the spread of diseases are discussed. Potential methods for eradicating or controlling invasive populations of O. mossambicus including physical removal, piscicides, screens, environmental management and genetic technologies are outlined.

Large scale surveys suggest limited mercury availability in tropical north Queensland (Australia)

Little is known about the threat of mercury (Hg) to consumers in food webs of Australia's wet-dry tropics. This is despite high concentrations in similar biomes elsewhere and a recent history of gold mining that could lead to a high degree of exposure for biota. We analysed Hg in water, sediments, invertebrates and fishes in rivers and estuaries of north Queensland, Australia to determine its availability and biomagnification in food webs. Concentrations in water and sediments were low relative to other regions of Hg concern, with only four of 138 water samples and five of 60 sediment samples above detection limits of 0.1 mu g L-1 and 01 mu g g(-1), respectively. Concentrations of Hg in fishes and invertebrates from riverine and wetland food webs were well below international consumption guidelines, including those in piscivorous fishes, likely due to low baseline concentrations and limited rates of biomagnification (average slope of log Hg vs. delta N-15 = 0.08). A large fish species of recreational, commercial, and cultural importance (the barramundi, Lates calcarifer), had low concentrations that were below consumption guidelines. Observed variation in Hg concentrations in this species was primarily explained by age and foraging location (floodplain vs. coastal), with floodplain feeders having higher Hg concentrations than those foraging at sea. These analyses suggest that there is a limited threat of Hg exposure for fish-eating consumers in this region. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Fish mediate high food web connectivity in the lower reaches of a tropical floodplain river

High levels of hydrological connectivity during seasonal flooding provide significant opportunities for movements of fish between rivers and their floodplains, estuaries and the sea, possibly mediating food web subsidies among habitats. To determine the degree of utilisation of food sources from different habitats in a tropical river with a short floodplain inundation duration (similar to 2 months), stable isotope ratios in fishes and their available food were measured from three habitats (inundated floodplain, dry season freshwater, coastal marine) in the lower reaches of the Mitchell River, Queensland (Australia). Floodplain food sources constituted the majority of the diet of large-bodied fishes (barramundi Lates calcarifer, catfish Neoarius graeffei) captured on the floodplain in the wet season and for gonadal tissues of a common herbivorous fish (gizzard shad Nematalosa come), the latter suggesting that critical reproductive phases are fuelled by floodplain production. Floodplain food sources also subsidised barramundi from the recreational fishery in adjacent coastal and estuarine areas, and the broader fish community from a freshwater lagoon. These findings highlight the importance of the floodplain in supporting the production of large fishes in spite of the episodic nature and relatively short duration of inundation compared to large river floodplains of humid tropical regions. They also illustrate the high degree of food web connectivity mediated by mobile fish in this system in the absence of human modification, and point to the potential consequences of water resource development that may reduce or eliminate hydrological connectivity between the river and its floodplain.

Evidence for reproductive philopatry in the bull shark Carcharhinus leucas

Reproductive philopatry in bull sharks Carcharhinus leucas was investigated by comparing mitochondrial (NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4, 797 base pairs and control region genes 837 base pairs) and nuclear (three microsatellite loci) DNA of juveniles sampled from 13 river systems across northern Australia. High mitochondrial and low microsatellite genetic diversity among juveniles sampled from different rivers (mitochondrial fST = 0.0767, P < 0.05; microsatellite FST = -0.0022, P > 0.05) supported female reproductive philopatry. Genetic structure was not further influenced by geographic distance (P > 0.05) or long-shore barriers to movement (P > 0.05). Additionally, results suggest that C. leucas in northern Australia has a long-term effective population size of 11 000-13 000 females and has undergone population bottlenecks and expansions that coincide with the timing of the last ice-ages.

Soil seed bank dynamics in response to an extreme flood event in a riparian habitat

A significantly increased water regime can lead to inundation of rivers, creeks and surrounding floodplains- and thus impact on the temporal dynamics of both the extant vegetation and the dormant, but viable soil-seed bank of riparian corridors. The study documented changes in the soil seed-bank along riparian corridors before and after a major flood event in January 2011 in southeast Queensland, Australia. The study site was a major river (the Mooleyember creek) near Roma, Central Queensland impacted by the extreme flood event and where baseline ecological data on riparian seed-bank populations have previously been collected in 2007, 2008 and 2009. After the major flood event, we collected further soil samples from the same locations in spring/summer (November–December 2011) and in early autumn (March 2012). Thereafter, the soils were exposed to adequate warmth and moisture under glasshouse conditions, and emerged seedlings identified taxonomically. Flooding increased seed-bank abundance but decreased its species richness and diversity. However, flood impact was less than that of yearly effect but greater than that of seasonal variation. Seeds of trees and shrubs were few in the soil, and were negatively affected by the flood; those of herbaceous and graminoids were numerous and proliferate after the flood. Seed-banks of weedy and/or exotic species were no more affected by the flood than those of native and/or non-invasive species. Overall, the studied riparian zone showed evidence of a quick recovery of its seed-bank over time, and can be considered to be resilient to an extreme flood event.