Second law analysis and simulation techniques for the energy optimization of buildings

The research activity described in this thesis is focused mainly on the study of finite-element techniques applied to thermo-fluid dynamic problems of plant components and on the study of dynamic simulation techniques applied to integrated building design in order to enhance the energy performance of the building. The first part of this doctorate thesis is a broad dissertation on second law analysis of thermodynamic processes with the purpose of including the issue of the energy efficiency of buildings within a wider cultural context which is usually not considered by professionals in the energy sector. In particular, the first chapter includes, a rigorous scheme for the deduction of the expressions for molar exergy and molar flow exergy of pure chemical fuels. The study shows that molar exergy and molar flow exergy coincide when the temperature and pressure of the fuel are equal to those of the environment in which the combustion reaction takes place. A simple method to determine the Gibbs free energy for non-standard values of the temperature and pressure of the environment is then clarified. For hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and several hydrocarbons, the dependence of the molar exergy on the temperature and relative humidity of the environment is reported, together with an evaluation of molar exergy and molar flow exergy when the temperature and pressure of the fuel are different from those of the environment. As an application of second law analysis, a comparison of the thermodynamic efficiency of a condensing boiler and of a heat pump is also reported. The second chapter presents a study of borehole heat exchangers, that is, a polyethylene piping network buried in the soil which allows a ground-coupled heat pump to exchange heat with the ground. After a brief overview of low-enthalpy geothermal plants, an apparatus designed and assembled by the author to carry out thermal response tests is presented. Data obtained by means of in situ thermal response tests are reported and evaluated by means of a finite-element simulation method, implemented through the software package COMSOL Multyphysics. The simulation method allows the determination of the precise value of the effective thermal properties of the ground and of the grout, which are essential for the design of borehole heat exchangers. In addition to the study of a single plant component, namely the borehole heat exchanger, in the third chapter is presented a thorough process for the plant design of a zero carbon building complex. The plant is composed of: 1) a ground-coupled heat pump system for space heating and cooling, with electricity supplied by photovoltaic solar collectors; 2) air dehumidifiers; 3) thermal solar collectors to match 70% of domestic hot water energy use, and a wood pellet boiler for the remaining domestic hot water energy use and for exceptional winter peaks. This chapter includes the design methodology adopted: 1) dynamic simulation of the building complex with the software package TRNSYS for evaluating the energy requirements of the building complex; 2) ground-coupled heat pumps modelled by means of TRNSYS; and 3) evaluation of the total length of the borehole heat exchanger by an iterative method developed by the author. An economic feasibility and an exergy analysis of the proposed plant, compared with two other plants, are reported. The exergy analysis was performed by considering the embodied energy of the components of each plant and the exergy loss during the functioning of the plants.

Seismic performance of rooftop cooling towers in buildings

Negli ultimi anni la ricerca ha fatto grandi passi avanti riguardo ai metodi di progetto e realizzazione delle strutture portanti degli edifici, a tal punto da renderle fortemente sicure sotto tutti i punti di vista. La nuova frontiera della ricerca sta quindi virando su aspetti che non erano mai stati in primo piano finora: gli elementi non-strutturali. Considerati fino ad oggi semplicemente carico accessorio, ci si rende sempre più conto della loro capacità di influire sui comportamenti delle strutture e sulla sicurezza di chi le occupa. Da qui nasce l’esigenza di questo grande progetto chiamato BNCs (Building Non-structural Component System), ideato dall’Università della California - San Diego e sponsorizzato dalle maggiori industrie impegnate nel campo delle costruzioni. Questo progetto, a cui ho preso parte, ha effettuato test su tavola vibrante di un edificio di cinque piani in scala reale, completamente arredato ed allestito dei più svariati elementi non-strutturali. Lo scopo della tesi in questione, ovviamente, riguarda l’identificazione strutturale e la verifica della sicurezza di uno di questi elementi non-strutturali: precisamente la torre di raffreddamento posta sul tetto dell’edificio (del peso di circa 3 tonnellate). Partendo da una verifica delle regole e calcoli di progetto, si è passato ad una fase di test sismici ed ispezioni post-test della torre stessa, infine tramite l’analisi dei dati raccolti durante i test e si è arrivati alla stesura di conclusioni.

Micro-simulation models at neighbourhood scale: the interplay of agents, buildings, activities and transport.

Urban systems consist of several interlinked sub-systems - social, economic, institutional and environmental – each representing a complex system of its own and affecting all the others at various structural and functional levels. An urban system is represented by a number of “human” agents, such as individuals and households, and “non-human” agents, such as buildings, establishments, transports, vehicles and infrastructures. These two categories of agents interact among them and simultaneously produce impact on the system they interact with. Try to understand the type of interactions, their spatial and temporal localisation to allow a very detailed simulation trough models, turn out to be a great effort and is the topic this research deals with. An analysis of urban system complexity is here presented and a state of the art review about the field of urban models is provided. Finally, six international models - MATSim, MobiSim, ANTONIN, TRANSIMS, UrbanSim, ILUTE - are illustrated and then compared.

Mechanical behaviour of composite spandrels in unreinforced masonry buildings

La presente tesi tratta il comportamento meccanico delle fasce di piano in muratura composite. Con tale termine ci si riferisce alle fasce di piano che hanno al di sotto un elemento portante in conglomerato cementizio armato, come ad esempio cordoli o solai. Assieme ai maschi murari, le fasce di piano costituiscono gli elementi portanti di una parete in muratura. Tuttavia, in caso di analisi sismica di un edificio in muratura, l’effetto fornito da tali elementi è trascurato e si considera solamente il contributo dei maschi murari. Ciò è dovuto anche alla scarsa conoscenza che ancora oggi si possiede sul loro comportamento meccanico. Per questo motivo diversi gruppi di ricerca tutt’ora sono impegnati in tale studio. In particolare, il lavoro di questa tesi, s’inserisce nel più ampio progetto di ricerca condotto dalla professoressa Katrin Beyer, direttrice del Laboratorio di Ingegneria Sismica e Dinamica Strutturale del Politecnico di Losanna (Svizzera).

Influence of cladding on robustness of multi-storey buildings

In this dissertation the influence of a precast concrete cladding system on structural robustness of a multi-storey steel-composite building is studied. The analysis follows the well-established framework developed at Imperial College London for the appraisal of robustness of multi-storey buildings. For this scope a simplified nonlinear model of a typical precast concrete façade-system is developed. Particular attention is given to the connection system between structural frame and panel, recognised as the driving component of the nonlinear behaviour of the façade-system. Only connections involved in the gravity load path are evaluated (bearing connections). Together with standard connection, a newly proposed system (Slotted Bearing Connection) is designed to achieve a more ductile behaviour of the panel-connection system. A parametric study involving the dimensions of panel-connection components is developed to search for an optimal configuration of the bearing connection. From the appraisal of structural robustness of the panelised frame it is found that the standard connection systems may reduce the robustness of a multi-storey frame due to a poor ductile behaviour while the newly proposed connection is able to guarantee an enhanced response to the panelised multi-storey frame thanks to a higher ductility.

La conservazione viva dell'esistente. Storia, progetto e restauro nell'opera di Josef Wiedemann

La tesi analizza, nel quadro del secondo dopoguerra, quattro casi studio scelti tra le opere di ricostruzione dell’architetto Josef Wiedemann (1910-2001) nel centro di Monaco di Baviera: Odeon (1951-1952), Alte Akademie (1951-1955), Siegestor (1956-1958) e Glyptothek (1961-1972). L’architetto si occupa di opere simbolo della città di Monaco, affrontando la loro ricostruzione come un tema fondante per la storia e l’identità del popolo bavarese, ma soprattutto come un’occasione per definire un metodo d’intervento sulle rovine della guerra. Il suo lavoro è caratterizzato infatti per la ricerca costante di una sintesi tra interesse per la conservazione dell’antico e apertura al nuovo; ispirandosi all’insegnamento del maestro Hans Döllgast, Wiedemann traccia una nuova originale strada per l’intervento sull’antico, segnata da una profonda capacità tecnico-progettuale e dall'attenzione alle nuove esigenze a cui deve rispondere un’architettura contemporanea. Partendo dai suoi scritti e dalle sue opere, si può rilevare un percorso coerente che, partendo dalla conoscenza della storia dell'edificio, ripercorrendone l’evoluzione dallo stato che potremmo definire “originario” allo stato di rovina, giunge a produrre nel progetto realizzato una sintesi tra il passato e il futuro. L'architetto, nella visione di Wiedemann, è chiamato a un compito di grande responsabilità: conoscere per progettare (o ri-progettare) un edificio che porta impressi su di sé i segni della propria storia. Nel metodo che viene messo progressivamente a punto operando nel corpo vivo dei monumenti feriti dalla guerra, è percepibile fino a distinguerlo chiaramente l’interesse e l’influenza del dibattito italiano sul restauro. La conservazione “viva” dell'esistente, così come viene definita da Wiedemann stesso, si declina in modo diverso per ogni caso particolare, approdando a risultati differenti tra loro, ma che hanno in comune alcuni principi fondamentali: conoscere, ricordare, conservare e innovare.

L'architettura di Pietro Bottoni a Ferrara: Occasioni di moderna composizione architettonica negli ambienti storici (1932-1971)

Ferrara è tra le città con le quali Piero Bottoni (1903-1973) ha istaurato un rapporto proficuo e duraturo che gli permise di elaborare molti progetti e che fu costante lungo quasi tutta la parabola professionale dell’autore milanese. Giunto nella città estense nei primi anni Trenta, vi lavorò nei tre decenni successivi elaborando progetti che spaziavano dalla scala dell’arredamento d’interni fino a quella urbana; i diciannove progetti studiati, tutti situati all’interno del centro storico della città, hanno come tema comune la relazione tra nuova architettura e città esistente. Osservando un ampio spettro di interventi che abbracciava la progettazione sull'esistente come quella del nuovo, Bottoni propone una visione dell'architettura senza suddivisioni disciplinari intendendo il restauro e la costruzione del nuovo come parti di un processo progettuale unitario. Sullo sfondo di questa vicenda, la cultura ferrarese tra le due guerre e nel Dopoguerra si caratterizza per il continuo tentativo di rendere attuale la propria storia rinascimentale effettuando operazioni di riscoperta che con continuità, a discapito dei cambiamenti politici, contraddistinguono le esperienze culturali condotte nel corso del Novecento. Con la contemporanea presenza durante gli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta di Bottoni, Zevi, Pane, Michelucci, Piccinato, Samonà, Bassani e Ragghianti, tutti impegnati nella costruzione dell’immagine storiografica della Ferrara rinascimentale, i caratteri di questa stagione culturale si fondono con i temi centrali del dibattito architettonico italiano e con quello per la salvaguardia dei centri storici. L’analisi dell’opera ferrarese di Piero Bottoni è così l’occasione per mostrare da un lato un carattere peculiare della sua architettura e, dall’altro, di studiare un contesto cultuale provinciale al fine di mostrare i punti di contatto tra le personalità presenti a Ferrara in quegli anni, di osservarne le reciproche influenze e di distinguere gli scambi avvenuti tra i principali centri della cultura architettonica italiana e un ambito geografico solo apparentemente secondario.

Development of An Energy Modeling Approach to Analyse Historical Building Performance

In the last years the attentions on the energy efficiency on historical buildings grows, as different research project took place across Europe. The attention on combining, the need of the preservation of the buildings, their value and their characteristic, with the need of the reduction of energy consumption and the improvements of indoor comfort condition, stimulate the discussion of two points of view that are usually in contradiction, buildings engineer and Conservation Institution. The results are surprising because a common field is growing while remains the need of balancing the respective exigencies. From these experience results clear that many questions should be answered also from the building physicist regarding the correct assessment: on the energy consumption of this class of buildings, on the effectiveness of the measures that could be adopted, and much more. This thesis gives a contribution to answer to these questions developing a procedure to analyse the historic building. The procedure gives a guideline of the energy audit for the historical building considering the experimental activities to dial with the uncertainty of the estimation of the energy balance. It offers a procedure to simulate the energy balance of building with a validated dynamic model considering also a calibration procedure to increase the accuracy of the model. An approach of design of energy efficiency measures through an optimization that consider different aspect is also presented. All the process is applied to a real case study to give to the reader a practical understanding.

Ultra-Low Power and Non-intrusive Wireless Monitoring for Smart Buildings

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) offer a new solution for distributed monitoring, processing and communication. First of all, the stringent energy constraints to which sensing nodes are typically subjected. WSNs are often battery powered and placed where it is not possible to recharge or replace batteries. Energy can be harvested from the external environment but it is a limited resource that must be used efficiently. Energy efficiency is a key requirement for a credible WSNs design. From the power source's perspective, aggressive energy management techniques remain the most effective way to prolong the lifetime of a WSN. A new adaptive algorithm will be presented, which minimizes the consumption of wireless sensor nodes in sleep mode, when the power source has to be regulated using DC-DC converters. Another important aspect addressed is the time synchronisation in WSNs. WSNs are used for real-world applications where physical time plays an important role. An innovative low-overhead synchronisation approach will be presented, based on a Temperature Compensation Algorithm (TCA). The last aspect addressed is related to self-powered WSNs with Energy Harvesting (EH) solutions. Wireless sensor nodes with EH require some form of energy storage, which enables systems to continue operating during periods of insufficient environmental energy. However, the size of the energy storage strongly restricts the use of WSNs with EH in real-world applications. A new approach will be presented, which enables computation to be sustained during intermittent power supply. The discussed approaches will be used for real-world WSN applications. The first presented scenario is related to the experience gathered during an European Project (3ENCULT Project), regarding the design and implementation of an innovative network for monitoring heritage buildings. The second scenario is related to the experience with Telecom Italia, regarding the design of smart energy meters for monitoring the usage of household's appliances.

Dynamic characterisation of four nine-story large-panel R.C. buildings in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan): A comparison between experimental ambient vibration analysis and numerical finite element modeling

With the outlook of improving seismic vulnerability assessment for the city of Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan), the global dynamic behaviour of four nine-storey r.c. large-panel buildings in elastic regime is studied. The four buildings were built during the Soviet era within a serial production system. Since they all belong to the same series, they have very similar geometries both in plan and in height. Firstly, ambient vibration measurements are performed in the four buildings. The data analysis composed of discrete Fourier transform, modal analysis (frequency domain decomposition) and deconvolution interferometry, yields the modal characteristics and an estimate of the linear impulse response function for the structures of the four buildings. Then, finite element models are set up for all four buildings and the results of the numerical modal analysis are compared with the experimental ones. The numerical models are finally calibrated considering the first three global modes and their results match the experimental ones with an error of less then 20%.