Impact dynamics of high Weber number drops on chemically modified metallic surfaces

Hydrophobic/superhydrophobic metallic surfaces prepared via chemical treatment are encountered in many industrial scenarios involving the impingement of spray droplets. The effectiveness of such surfaces is understood through the analysis of droplet impact experiments. In the present study, three target surfaces with aluminum (Al-6061) as base material-acid-etched, Octadecyl Trichloro Silane (OTS) coated, and acid-etched plus OTS-coated-were prepared. Experiments on the impact of inertia dominated water drops on these chemically modified aluminum surfaces were carried out with the objective to highlight the effect of chemical treatment on the target surfaces on key sub-processes occurring in drop impact phenomenon. High speed videos of the entire drop impact dynamics were captured at three Weber number (We) conditions representative of high We (We > 200) regime. During the early stages of drop spreading, the drop impact resulted in ejection of secondary droplets from spreading drop front on the etched surfaces resembling prompt splash on rough surfaces whereas no such splashing was observable on untreated aluminum surface. Prominent development of undulations (fingers) were observed at the rim of drop spreading on the etched surfaces; between the etched surfaces the OTS-coated surface showed a subdued development of fingers than the uncoated surface. The impacted drops showed intense receding on OTS-coated surfaces whereas on the etched surface a highly irregular receding, with drop liquid sticking to the surface, was observed. Quantitative analyses were performed to reveal the effect of target surface characteristics on drop impact parameters such as temporal variation of spread factor of drop lamella, temporal variation of average finger length during spreading phase, maximum drop spreading, time taken to attain maximum spreading, sensitivity of maximum spreading to We, number of fingers at maximum spreading, and average receding velocity of drop lamella. Existing models for maximum drop spreading showed reasonably good agreement with the experimental measurements on the target surfaces except the acid-etched surface. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Enhancing the photocatalytic efficiency of sprayed ZnO thin films through double doping (Sn plus F) and annealing under different ambiences

Doubly (Sn + F) doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Sn:F) thin films were deposited onto glass substrates using a simplified spray pyrolysis technique. The deposited films were annealed at 400 degrees C under two different ambiences (air and vacuum) for 2 h. The photocatalytic activity of these films was assessed through photocatalytic decolorization kinetics of Methylene Blue (MB) dye and the decolorization efficiency of the annealed films was compared with that of their as-deposited counterpart. The photocatalytic studies reveal that the ZnO:Sn:F films annealed under vacuum environment exhibits better photocatalytic efficiency when compared with both air annealed and as-deposited films. The SEM and TEM images depict that the surface of each of the films has an overlayer comprising of nanobars formed on a bottom layer, having spherical grains. The studies show that the diameter of the nanobars plays crucial role in enhancing the photocatalytic activity of the ZnO:Sn:F films. The structural, optical and electrical studies substantiate the discussions on the photocatalytic ability of the deposited films. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF LIQUID JET BREAK UP IN A CROSSFLOW

Atomization is the process of disintegration of a liquid jet into ligaments and subsequently into smaller droplets. A liquid jet injected from a circular orifice into cross flow of air undergoes atomization primarily due to the interaction of the two phases rather than an intrinsic break up. Direct numerical simulation of this process resolving the finest droplets is computationally very expensive and impractical. In the present study, we resort to multiscale modelling to reduce the computational cost. The primary break up of the liquid jet is simulated using Gerris, an open source code, which employs Volume-of-Fluid (VOF) algorithm. The smallest droplets formed during primary atomization are modeled as Lagrangian particles. This one-way coupling approach is validated with the help of the simple test case of tracking a particle in a Taylor-Green vortex. The temporal evolution of the liquid jet forming the spray is captured and the flattening of the cylindrical liquid column prior to breakup is observed. The size distribution of the resultant droplets is presented at different distances downstream from the location of injection and their spatial evolution is analyzed.

Effect of Pt doping on the gas sensing properties of porous chromium oxide films through a kinetic response analysis approach

The effect of doping trace amounts of noblemetals (Pt) on the gas sensing properties of chromium oxide thin films, is studied. The sensors are fabricated by depositing chromium oxide films on a glass substrate using a modified spray pyrolysis technique and characterized using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The films are porous and nanocrystalline with an average crystallite size of similar to 30 nm. The typical p-type conductivity arises due to the presence of Cr vacancies, formed as a result of Cr non-stoichiometry, which is found to vary upon Pt doping. In order to analyze the effect of doping on the gas sensing properties, we have adopted a kinetic response analysis approach, which is based on Langmuir Adsorption isotherm (LA) theory. The sensor response is analyzed with equations obtained from LA theory and time constants as well as energies of adsorption-desorption are evaluated. It is seen that, Pt doping lowers the Schottky barrier height of the metal oxide semiconductor sensor from 222 meV to 172 meV. Subsequently the reduction in adsorption and desorption energies led to enhancement in sensor response and improvement in the kinetics of the sensor response i.e. the response time as well as recovery times of the sensor.

Effect of viscosity and surface tension on breakup and coalescence of bicomponent sprays

This work deals with an experimental study of the breakup characteristics of liquids with different surface tension and viscosity from a hollow cone hydraulic injector nozzle induced by pressure-swirl. The experiments were conducted at Reynolds numbers Re-p=9500-23,000. The surface tension and viscosity of the surrogate fuels were altered from 72 to 30 mN/m and 1.1 to 1.6 mN s/m(2), respectively. High speed photography and Phase Doppler Particle Anemometry were utilized to study the atomization process. Velocity and drop size measurements of the spray using PDPA in both axial and radial directions indicate a dependency on surface tension. However, these effects are dominant only at low Reynolds numbers and are negligible at high Reynolds number. Downstream of the nozzle, coalescence of droplets due to collision was also found to be significant and the diameters were compared for different liquids. For viscous fluids up to 1.6 cP, the independent effects of viscosity and injection pressure are studied. In general, the spray cone angle increases with increase in pressure. At high pressures, an increase in viscosity leads to higher drop sizes following primary and secondary breakup compared to water. This study will extend our understanding of surrogate fuel film breakup and highlight the importance of long and short wavelength instabilities. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Analysis on the atomization characteristics of aviation biofuel discharging from simplex swirl atomizer

The atomization characteristics of aviation biofuel discharging from a simplex swirl atomizer into quiescent atmospheric air are studied. The aviation biofuel is a mixture of 90% commercially available camelina-derived biofuel and 10% VonSol-53 (aromatics). The experiments are conducted in a spray test facility at varying fuel flow rate conditions. The measured characteristics include atomizer flow number, spray cone angle, breakup length of liquid sheet, wavelength of undulations on liquid sheet, and spray droplet size. The characteristics of biofuel sheet breakup are deduced from the captured images of biofuel spray. The measurements of spray droplet size distribution are obtained using Spraytec. The experimentally measured characteristics of the biofuel sheet breakup are compared with the predictions obtained from the liquid film breakup model proposed by Senecal et al. (1999). The measurements of wavelength and breakup length of the biofuel sheet discharging from the simplex swirl atomizer agree well with the model predictions. The model-predicted droplet size for the biofuel spray is significantly higher than the experimentally measured Sauter mean diameter (SMD). The spray droplets formed from the liquid sheet breakup undergo secondary atomization until 35-45 mm from the atomizer exit and thereafter the SMD increases downstream due to the combined effect of fuel evaporation and droplet coalescence. A good comparison is observed between the experimentally measured SMD of the biofuel spray and the predictions obtained using the empirical correlation reported in literature for sprays discharging from simplex swirl atomizers. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Atomization Characteristics of Camelina-Based Alternative Aviation Fuels Discharging From Dual-Orifice Injector

The atomization characteristics of blends of bioderived camelina hydrogenated renewable jet (HRJ) alternative fuel with conventional aviation kerosene (Jet A-1) discharging into ambient atmospheric air from a dual-orifice atomizer used in aircraft engines are described. The spray tests are conducted in a spray test facility at six different test flow conditions to compare the atomization of alternative fuels with that of Jet A-1. The fuel sprays are characterized in terms of fuel discharge, spray cone angle, drop size distribution, and spray patternation. The measurements of spray drop size distribution are obtained using laser diffraction based Spraytec equipment. The characteristics of fuel discharge and cone angle of alternative fuel sprays do not show any changes from that of Jet A-1 sprays. The characteristics of spray drop size, evaluated in terms of the variation of mean drop size along the spray axis, for the alternative fuel sprays remain unaffected by the variation in fuel properties between the alternative fuels and Jet A-1. The measurements on spray patternation, obtained using a mechanical patternator at a distance 5.1 cm from the atomizer exit, show an enhanced fuel concentration in the vicinity of spray axis region for the alternative fuel sprays discharging from the dual-orifice atomizer.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON AIR-ASSISTED ATOMIZATION OF JATROPHA PURE PLANT OIL

The present study focuses on exploring air-assisted atomization strategies for effective atomization of high-viscosity biofuels, such as pure plant oils (PPOs). The first part of the study concerns application of a novel air-assisted impinging jet atomization for continuous spray applications, and the second part concerns transient spray applications. The particle/droplet imaging analysis (PDIA) technique along with direct imaging methods are used for the purpose of spray characterization. In the first part, effective atomization of Jatropha PPO is demonstrated at gas-to-liquid ratios (GLRs) on the order 0.1. The effect of liquid and gas flow rates on the spray characteristics is evaluated, and results indicate a Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of 50 mu m is achieved with GLRs as low as 0.05. In the second part of the study, a commercially available air-assisted transient atomizer is evaluated using Jatropha PPO. The effect of the pressure difference across the air injector and ambient gas pressure on liquid spray characteristics is studied. The results indicate that it is possible to achieve the same level of atomization of Jatropha as diesel fuel by operating the atomizer at a higher pressure difference. Specifically, a SMD of 44 mu m is obtained for the Jatropha oil using injection pressures of <1 MPa. A further interesting observation associated with this injector is the near constancy of a nondimensional spray penetration rate for the Jatropha oil spray.

Wireless scheduling with partial channel state information: large deviations and optimality

We consider a server serving a time-slotted queued system of multiple packet-based flows, where not more than one flow can be serviced in a single time slot. The flows have exogenous packet arrivals and time-varying service rates. At each time, the server can observe instantaneous service rates for only a subset of flows ( selected from a fixed collection of observable subsets) before scheduling a flow in the subset for service. We are interested in queue length aware scheduling to keep the queues short. The limited availability of instantaneous service rate information requires the scheduler to make a careful choice of which subset of service rates to sample. We develop scheduling algorithms that use only partial service rate information from subsets of channels, and that minimize the likelihood of queue overflow in the system. Specifically, we present a new joint subset-sampling and scheduling algorithm called Max-Exp that uses only the current queue lengths to pick a subset of flows, and subsequently schedules a flow using the Exponential rule. When the collection of observable subsets is disjoint, we show that Max-Exp achieves the best exponential decay rate, among all scheduling algorithms that base their decision on the current ( or any finite past history of) system state, of the tail of the longest queue. To accomplish this, we employ novel analytical techniques for studying the performance of scheduling algorithms using partial state, which may be of independent interest. These include new sample-path large deviations results for processes obtained by non-random, predictable sampling of sequences of independent and identically distributed random variables. A consequence of these results is that scheduling with partial state information yields a rate function significantly different from scheduling with full channel information. In the special case when the observable subsets are singleton flows, i.e., when there is effectively no a priori channel state information, Max-Exp reduces to simply serving the flow with the longest queue; thus, our results show that to always serve the longest queue in the absence of any channel state information is large deviations optimal.

Optimization of bus allocation to depots by minimizing dead kilometers

In metropolitan cities, public transportation service plays a vital role in mobility of people, and it has to introduce new routes more frequently due to the fast development of the city in terms of population growth and city size. Whenever there is introduction of new route or increase in frequency of buses, the nonrevenue kilometers covered by the buses increases as depot and route starting/ending points are at different places. This non-revenue kilometers or dead kilometers depends on the distance between depot and route starting point/ending point. The dead kilometers not only results in revenue loss but also results in an increase in the operating cost because of the extra kilometers covered by buses. Reduction of dead kilometers is necessary for the economic growth of the public transportation system. Therefore, in this study, the attention is focused on minimizing dead kilometers by optimizing allocation of buses to depots depending upon the shortest distance between depot and route starting/ending points. We consider also depot capacity and time period of operation during allocation of buses to ensure parking safety and proper maintenance of buses. Mathematical model is developed considering the aforementioned parameters, which is a mixed integer program, and applied to Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) routes operating presently in order to obtain optimal bus allocation to depots. Database for dead kilometers of depots in BMTC for all the schedules are generated using the Form-4 (trip sheet) of each schedule to analyze depot-wise and division-wise dead kilometers. This study also suggests alternative locations where depots can be located to reduce dead kilometers. Copyright (C) 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Combustion and heat transfer characteristics of nanofluid fuel droplets: A short review

With the pressing need to meet an ever-increasing energy demand, the combustion systems utilizing fossil fuels have been the major contributors to carbon footprint. As the combustion of conventional energy resources continue to produce significant Green House gas (GHG) emissions, there is a strong emphasis to either upgrade or find an energy-efficient eco-friendly alternative to the traditional hydrocarbon fuels. With recent developments in nanotechnology, the ability to manufacture materials with custom tailored properties at nanoscale has led to the discovery of a new class of high energy density fuels containing reactive metallic nanoparticles (NPs). Due to the high reactive interfacial area and enhanced thermal and mass transport properties of nanomaterials, the high heat of formation of these metallic fuels can now be released rapidly, thereby saving on specific fuel consumption and hence reducing GHG emissions. In order to examine the efficacy of nanofuels in energetic formulations, it is imperative to first study their combustion characteristics at the droplet scale that form the fundamental building block for any combustion system utilizing liquid fuel spray. During combustion of such multiphase, multicomponent droplets, the phenomenon of diffusional entrapment of high volatility species leads to its explosive boiling (at the superheat limit) thereby leading to an intense internal pressure build-up. This pressure upsurge causes droplet fragmentation either in form of a microexplosion or droplet puffing followed by atomization (with formation of daughter droplets) featuring disruptive burning. Both these atomization modes represent primary mechanisms for extracting the high oxidation energies of metal NP additives by exposing them to the droplet flame (with daughter droplets acting as carriers of NPs). Atomization also serves as a natural mechanism for uniform distribution and mixing of the base fuel and enhancing burning rates (due to increase in specific surface area through formation of smaller daughter droplets). However, the efficiency of atomization depends on the thermo-physical properties of the base fuel, NP concentration and type. For instance, at dense loading NP agglomeration may lead to shell formation which would sustain the pressure upsurge and hence suppress atomization thereby reducing droplet gasification rate. Contrarily, the NPs may act as nucleation sites and aid boiling and the radiation absorption by NPs (from the flame) may lead to enhanced burning rates. Thus, nanoadditives may have opposing effects on the burning rate depending on the relative dominance of processes occurring at the droplet scale. The fundamental idea in this study is to: First, review different thermo-physical processes that occur globally at the droplet and sub-droplet scale such as surface regression, shell formation due to NP agglomeration, internal boiling, atomization/NP transport to flame zone and flame acoustic interaction that occur at the droplet scale and second, understand how their interaction changes as a function of droplet size, NP type, NP concentration and the type of base fuel. This understanding is crucial for obtaining phenomenological insights on the combustion behavior of novel nanofluid fuels that show great promise for becoming the next-generation fuels. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Modulation of Buckling Dynamics in Nanoparticle Laden Droplets Using External Heating

Dynamics of contact free (levitated) drying of nanofluid droplets is ubiquitous in many application domains ranging from spray drying to pharmaceutics. Controlling the final morphology (macro to micro scales) of the dried out sample poses some serious challenges. Evaporation of solvent and agglomeration of particles leads to porous shell formation in acoustically levitated nanosilica droplets. The capillary pressure due to evaporation across the menisci at the nanoscale pores causes buckling of the shell which leads to ring and bowl shaped final structures. Acoustics plays a crucial role in flattening of droplets which is a prerequisite for initiation of buckling in the shell: Introduction of mixed nanocolloids (sodium dodecyl sulfate + nanosilica) reduces evaporation rate, disrupts formation of porous shell, and enhances mechanical strength of the shell, all of which restricts the process of buckling. Although buckling is completely arrested in such surfactant added droplets, controlled external heating using laser enhances evaporation through the pores in the shell due to thermally induced structural changes and rearrangement of SDS aggregates which reinitializes buckling in such droplets, Furthermore, inclusion of anilinium hydrochloride into the nanoparticle laden droplets produces ions which adsorb and modify the morphology of sodium dodecyl sulfate crystals and reinitializes buckling in the shell (irrespective of external heating conditions). The kinetics of buckling is determined by the combined effect of morphology of the colloidal particles, particle/aggregate diffusion rate within the droplet, and the rate of evaporation of water. The buckling dynamics leads to cavity formation which grows subsequently to yield final structures with drastically different morphological features. The cavity growth is controlled by evaporation through the nanoscate pores and exhibits a universal trend irrespective of heating rate and nanoparticle type.

Effect of W addition on the electrical switching of VO2 thin films

Vanadium Oxide has been a frontrunner in the field of oxide electronics because of its metal-insulator transition (MIT). The interplay of different structures of VO2 has played a crucial role in deciding the magnitude of the first order MIT. Substitution doping has been found to introduce different polymorphs of VO2. Hence the role of substitution doping in stabilizing the competing phases of VO2 in the thin film form remains underexplored. Consequently there have been reports both discounting and approving such a stabilization of competing phases in VO2. It is reported in the literature that the bandwidth of the hysteresis and transition temperature of VO2 can be tuned by substitutional doping of VO2 with W. In this work, we have adopted a novel technique called, Ultrasonic Nebulized Spray Pyrolysis of Aqueous Combustion Mixture (UNSPACM) to deposit VO2 and W- doped VO2 as thin films. XRD and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the role of tungsten on the structure of VO2 thin films. Morphology of the thin films was found to be consisting of globular and porous nanoparticles of size similar to 20nm. Transition temperature decreased with the addition of W. We found that for 2.0 at % W doping in VO2, the transition temperature has reduced from 68 degrees C to 25 degrees C. It is noted that W-doping in the process of reducing the transition temperature, alters the local structure and also increases room temperature carrier concentration. (c) 2016 Author(s).

喷油泵转速变化对乳化液喷雾特性的影响

采用高速摄影技术,研究了压力雾化喷嘴对甲醇、水和柴油多组元乳化液的雾化特性. 结果表明:当实验工质为乳化液时,提高喷油泵的转速,喷油器喷嘴的有效喷射压力随之上升,喷雾贯穿速度提高,喷雾锥角增大,喷雾的持续时间增长;乳化液和柴油的喷雾有一定的差异,即柴油的喷雾锥角比乳化液的大,喷油器的嘴端压力比乳化液的小,喷雾持续时间也比乳化液的短.

等离子体喷涂涂层细观结构与工艺相关性研究

采用改进的颗粒沉积模型和一种新建议的循环算法，利用数值方法模拟了等离子体喷涂中涂层的生长过程及涂层的细观结构。数值模拟，主要包括了陶瓷液滴的高速变形与凝固、涂层材料的堆积、涂层中细胞空洞的形成与温度场的迭代计算等过程。研究结果表明，涂层中孔隙率的分布与一些关键工艺参数和基底表面状态等有关，液态陶瓷颗粒的直径和飞行速度的加大会引起涂层内孔隙率的增加，而基体温度和表面粗糙度的升高则有利于提高涂层的致密度。本文的研究结果将有助于定量或半定量地优化选取工艺参数以便获得所需的涂层结构和改善涂层的力学性能。