Duty and Control in Intermediary Copyright Liability: An Australian Perspective

In the internet age, copyright owners are increasingly looking to online intermediaries to take steps to prevent copyright infringement. Sometimes these intermediaries are closely tied to the acts of infringement; sometimes – as in the case of ISPs – they are not. In 2012, the Australian High Court decided the Roadshow Films v iiNet case, in which it held that an Australian ISP was not liable under copyright’s authorization doctrine, which asks whether the intermediary has sanctioned, approved or countenanced the infringement. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 directs a court to consider, in these situations, whether the intermediary had the power to prevent the infringement and whether it took any reasonable steps to prevent or avoid the infringement. It is generally not difficult for a court to find the power to prevent infringement – power to prevent can include an unrefined technical ability to disconnect users from the copyright source, such as an ISP terminating users’ internet accounts. In the iiNet case, the High Court eschewed this broad approach in favor of focusing on a notion of control that was influenced by principles of tort law. In tort, when a plaintiff asserts that a defendant should be liable for failing to act to prevent harm caused to the plaintiff by a third party, there is a heavy burden on the plaintiff to show that the defendant had a duty to act. The duty must be clear and specific, and will often hinge on the degree of control that the defendant was able to exercise over the third party. Control in these circumstances relates directly to control over the third party’s actions in inflicting the harm. Thus, in iiNet’s case, the control would need to be directed to the third party’s infringing use of BitTorrent; control over a person’s ability to access the internet is too imprecise. Further, when considering omissions to act, tort law differentiates between the ability to control and the ability to hinder. The ability to control may establish a duty to act, and the court will then look to small measures taken to prevent the harm to determine whether these satisfy the duty. But the ability to hinder will not suffice to establish liability in the absence of control. This chapter argues that an inquiry grounded in control as defined in tort law would provide a more principled framework for assessing the liability of passive intermediaries in copyright. In particular, it would set a higher, more stable benchmark for determining the copyright liability of passive intermediaries, based on the degree of actual, direct control that the intermediary can exercise over the infringing actions of its users. This approach would provide greater clarity and consistency than has existed to date in this area of copyright law in Australia.

Weed eradication - an economic perspective

There has been recent interest in determining the upper limits to the feasibility of weed eradication. Although a number of disparate factors determine the success of an eradication program, ultimately eradication feasibility must be viewed in the context of the amount of investment that can be made. The latter should reflect the hazard posed by an invasion, with greater investment justified by greater threats. In simplest terms, the effort (and hence investment) to achieve weed eradication comprises the detection effort required to delimit an invasion plus the search and control effort required to prevent reproduction until extirpation occurs over the entire infested area. The difficulty of estimating the required investment at the commencement of a weed eradication program (as well as during periodic reviews) is a serious problem. Bioeconomics show promise in determining the optimal approach to managing weed invasions, notwithstanding ongoing difficulties in estimating the costs and benefits of eradication and alternative invasion management strategies. A flexible approach to the management of weed invasions is needed, allowing for the adoption of another strategy when it becomes clear that the probability of eradication is low, owing to resourcing or intractable technical issues. Whether the considerable progress that has been achieved towards eradication of the once massive witchweed invasion can be duplicated for other weeds of agricultural systems will depend to a large extent upon investment (. $250 million over 50 yr in this instance). Weeds of natural ecosystems seem destined to remain more difficult eradication targets for a variety of reasons, including higher impedance to eradication, more difficulty in valuing the benefits arising from eradication, and possibly less willingness to pay from society at large.

Potential economic benefit of intensification of beef production in Australian rangelands: an operational case study perspective.

In Australia, the development of rangelands has led to steady gains in pastoral productivity through more intensive and widespread land use (Stokes et al., 2006). Opportunities to benefit from intensification exist on large properties with relatively poor water and fencing infrastructure development, resulting in uneven utilisation of available forage (Ash et al.,2006). The objective of this study is to value expected economic gains from carrying out property improvements on a beef property located in Northern Australia.

Native and exotic pests of Eucalyptus: A worldwide perspective.

Eucalyptus species, native to Australia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and New Guinea, are the most widely planted hardwood timber species in the world. The trees, moved around the globe as seeds, escaped the diverse community of herbivores found in their native range. However, a number of herbivore species from the native range of eucalypts have invaded many Eucalyptus-growing regions in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America in the last 30 years. In addition, there have been shifts of native species, particularly in Africa, Asia, and South America, onto Eucalyptus. There are risks that these species as well as generalist herbivores from other parts of the world will invade Australia and threaten the trees in their native range. The risk to Eucalyptus plantations in Australia is further compounded by planting commercially important species outside their endemic range and shifting of local herbivore populations onto new host trees. Understanding the mechanisms underlying host specificity of Australian insects can provide insight into patterns of host range expansion of both native and exotic insects.

Nursing physical assessment for patient safety in general wards: Reaching consensus on core skills

Aims and objectives To determine consensus across acute care specialty areas on core physical assessment skills necessary for early recognition of changes in patient status in general wards. Background Current approaches to physical assessment are inconsistent and have not evolved to meet increased patient and system demands. New models of nursing assessment are needed in general wards that ensure a proactive and patient safety approach. Design A modified Delphi study. Methods Focus group interviews with 150 acute care registered nurses (RNs) at a large tertiary referral hospital generated a framework of core skills that were developed into a web-based survey. We then sought consensus with a panel of 35 senior acute care RNs following a classical Delphi approach over three rounds. Consensus was predefined as at least 80% agreement for each skill across specialty areas. Results Content analysis of focus group transcripts identified 40 discrete core physical assessment skills. In the Delphi rounds, 16 of these were consensus validated as core skills and were conceptually aligned with the primary survey: (Airway) Assess airway patency; (Breathing) Measure respiratory rate, Evaluate work of breathing, Measure oxygen saturation; (Circulation) Palpate pulse rate and rhythm, Measure blood pressure by auscultation, Assess urine output; (Disability) Assess level of consciousness, Evaluate speech, Assess for pain; (Exposure) Measure body temperature, Inspect skin integrity, Inspect and palpate skin for signs of pressure injury, Observe any wounds, dressings, drains and invasive lines, Observe ability to transfer and mobilise, Assess bowel movements. Conclusions Among a large and diverse group of experienced acute care RNs consensus was achieved on a structured core physical assessment to detect early changes in patient status. Relevance to clinical practice Although further research is needed to refine the model, clinical application should promote systematic assessment and clinical reasoning at the bedside.

Integrated lean six sigma approach for patient flow improvement in hospital emergency department

This research aims to develop an Integrated Lean Six Sigma approach to investigate and resolve the patient flow problems in hospital emergency departments. It was proposed that the voice of the customer and the voice of the process should be considered simultaneously to investigate the current process of patient flow. Statistical analysis, visual process mapping with A3 problem solving sheet, and cause and effect diagrams have been used to identify the major patient flow issues. This research found that engaged frontline workers, long-term leadership obligation, an understanding of patients' requirements and the implementation of a systematic integration of lean strategies could continuously improve patient flow, health care service and growth in the emergency departments.

Evidence-based perspective on CP rehabilitation : Reviews on physiotherapy, physiotherapy-related motor-based interventions and orthotic devices

This thesis utilises an evidence-based approach to critically evaluate and summarize effectiveness research on physiotherapy, physiotherapy-related motor-based interventions and orthotic devices in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP). It aims to assess the methodological challenges of the systematic reviews and trials, to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions in current use, and to make suggestions for future trials Methods: Systematic reviews were searched from computerized bibliographic databases up to August 2007 for physiotherapy and physiotherapy-related interventions, and up to May 2003 for orthotic devices. Two reviewers independently identified, selected, and assessed the quality of the reviews using the Overview Quality Assessment Questionnaire complemented with decision rules. From a sample of 14 randomized controlled trials (RCT) published between January 1990 and June 2003 we analysed the methods of sampling, recruitment, and comparability of groups; defined the components of a complex intervention; identified outcome measures based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF); analysed the clinical interpretation of score changes; and analysed trial reporting using a modified 33-item CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) checklist. The effectiveness of physiotherapy and physiotherapy-related interventions in children with diagnosed CP was evaluated in a systematic review of randomised controlled trials that were searched from computerized databases from January 1990 up to February 2007. Two reviewers independently assessed the methodological quality, extracted the data, classified the outcomes using the ICF, and considered the level of evidence according to van Tulder et al. (2003). Results: We identified 21 reviews on physiotherapy and physiotherapy-related interventions and five on orthotic devices. These reviews summarized 23 or 5 randomised controlled trials and 104 or 27 observational studies, respectively. Only six reviews were of high quality. These found some evidence supporting strength training, constraint-induced movement therapy or hippotherapy, and insufficient evidence on comprehensive interventions. Based on the original studies included in the reviews on orthotic devices we found some short-term effects of lower limb casting on passive range of movement, and of ankle-foot orthoses on equinus walk. Long term effects of lower limb orthoses have not been studied. Evidence of upper limb casting or orthoses is conflicting. In the sample of 14 RCTs, most trials used simple randomisation, complemented with matching or stratification, but only three specified the concealed allocation. Numerous studies provided sufficient details on the components of a complex intervention, but the overlap of outcome measures across studies was poor and the clinical interpretation of observed score changes was mostly missing. Almost half (48%) of the applicable CONSORT-based items (range 28 32) were reported adequately. Most reporting inadequacies were in outcome measures, sample size determination, details of the sequence generation, allocation concealment and implementation of the randomization, success of assessor blinding, recruitment and follow-up dates, intention-to-treat analysis, precision of the effect size, co-interventions, and adverse events. The systematic review identified 22 trials on eight intervention categories. Four trials were of high quality. Moderate evidence of effectiveness was established for upper extremity treatments on attained goals, active supination and developmental status, and of constraint-induced therapy on the amount and quality of hand use and new emerging behaviours. Moderate evidence of ineffectiveness was found for strength training's effect on walking speed and stride length. Conflicting evidence was found for strength training's effect on gross motor function. For the other intervention categories the evidence was limited due to the low methodological quality and the statistically insignificant results of the studies. Conclusions: The high-quality reviews provide both supportive and insufficient evidence on some physiotherapy interventions. The poor quality of most reviews calls for caution, although most reviews drew no conclusions on effectiveness due to the poor quality of the primary studies. A considerable number of RCTs of good to fair methodological and reporting quality indicate that informative and well-reported RCTs on complex interventions in children and adolescents with CP are feasible. Nevertheless, methodological improvement is needed in certain areas of the trial design and performance, and the trial authors are encouraged to follow the CONSORT criteria. Based on RCTs we established moderate evidence for some effectiveness of upper extremity training. Due to limitations in methodological quality and variations in population, interventions and outcomes, mostly limited evidence on the effectiveness of most physiotherapy interventions is available to guide clinical practice. Well-designed trials are needed, especially for focused physiotherapy interventions.

Routine Measurement of Health-Related Quality of Life in Assessing Cost-Effectiveness in Secondary Health Care

Aims: The aims of this study were 1) to identify and describe health economic studies that have used quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) based on actual measurements of patients' health-related quality of life (HRQoL); 2) to test the feasibility of routine collection of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) data as an indicator of effectiveness of secondary health care; and 3) to establish and compare the cost-utility of three large-volume surgical procedures in a real-world setting in the Helsinki University Central Hospital, a large referral hospital providing secondary and tertiary health-care services for a population of approximately 1.4 million. Patients and methods: So as to identify studies that have used QALYs as an outcome measure, a systematic search of the literature was performed using the Medline, Embase, CINAHL, SCI and Cochrane Library electronic databases. Initial screening of the identified articles involved two reviewers independently reading the abstracts; the full-text articles were also evaluated independently by two reviewers, with a third reviewer used in cases where the two reviewers could not agree a consensus on which articles should be included. The feasibility of routinely evaluating the cost-effectiveness of secondary health care was tested by setting up a system for collecting HRQoL data on approximately 4 900 patients' HRQoL before and after operative treatments performed in the hospital. The HRQoL data used as an indicator of treatment effectiveness was combined with diagnostic and financial indicators routinely collected in the hospital. To compare the cost-effectiveness of three surgical interventions, 712 patients admitted for routine operative treatment completed the 15D HRQoL questionnaire before and also 3-12 months after the operation. QALYs were calculated using the obtained utility data and expected remaining life years of the patients. Direct hospital costs were obtained from the clinical patient administration database of the hospital and a cost-utility analysis was performed from the perspective of the provider of secondary health care services. Main results: The systematic review (Study I) showed that although QALYs gained are considered an important measure of the effectiveness of health care, the number of studies in which QALYs are based on actual measurements of patients' HRQoL is still fairly limited. Of the reviewed full-text articles, only 70 reported QALYs based on actual before after measurements using a valid HRQoL instrument. Collection of simple cost-effectiveness data in secondary health care is feasible and could easily be expanded and performed on a routine basis (Study II). It allows meaningful comparisons between various treatments and provides a means for allocating limited health care resources. The cost per QALY gained was 2 770 for cervical operations and 1 740 for lumbar operations. In cases where surgery was delayed the cost per QALY was doubled (Study III). The cost per QALY ranges between subgroups in cataract surgery (Study IV). The cost per QALY gained was 5 130 for patients having both eyes operated on and 8 210 for patients with only one eye operated on during the 6-month follow-up. In patients whose first eye had been operated on previous to the study period, the mean HRQoL deteriorated after surgery, thus precluding the establishment of the cost per QALY. In arthroplasty patients (Study V) the mean cost per QALY gained in a one-year period was 6 710 for primary hip replacement, 52 270 for revision hip replacement, and 14 000 for primary knee replacement. Conclusions: Although the importance of cost-utility analyses has during recent years been stressed, there are only a limited number of studies in which the evaluation is based on patients own assessment of the treatment effectiveness. Most of the cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses are based on modeling that employs expert opinion regarding the outcome of treatment, not on patient-derived assessments. Routine collection of effectiveness information from patients entering treatment in secondary health care turned out to be easy enough and did not, for instance, require additional personnel on the wards in which the study was executed. The mean patient response rate was more than 70 %, suggesting that patients were happy to participate and appreciated the fact that the hospital showed an interest in their well-being even after the actual treatment episode had ended. Spinal surgery leads to a statistically significant and clinically important improvement in HRQoL. The cost per QALY gained was reasonable, at less than half of that observed for instance for hip replacement surgery. However, prolonged waiting for an operation approximately doubled the cost per QALY gained from the surgical intervention. The mean utility gain following routine cataract surgery in a real world setting was relatively small and confined mostly to patients who had had both eyes operated on. The cost of cataract surgery per QALY gained was higher than previously reported and was associated with considerable degree of uncertainty. Hip and knee replacement both improve HRQoL. The cost per QALY gained from knee replacement is two-fold compared to hip replacement. Cost-utility results from the three studied specialties showed that there is great variation in the cost-utility of surgical interventions performed in a real-world setting even when only common, widely accepted interventions are considered. However, the cost per QALY of all the studied interventions, except for revision hip arthroplasty, was well below 50 000, this figure being sometimes cited in the literature as a threshold level for the cost-effectiveness of an intervention. Based on the present study it may be concluded that routine evaluation of the cost-utility of secondary health care is feasible and produces information essential for a rational and balanced allocation of scarce health care resources.

Gene-based pleiotropy across migraine with aura and migraine without aura patient groups

Introduction: It is unclear whether patients diagnosed according to International Classification of Headache Disorders criteria for migraine with aura (MA) and migraine without aura (MO) experience distinct disorders or whether their migraine subtypes are genetically related. Aim: Using a novel gene-based (statistical) approach, we aimed to identify individual genes and pathways associated both with MA and MO. Methods: Gene-based tests were performed using genome-wide association summary statistic results from the most recent International Headache Genetics Consortium study comparing 4505 MA cases with 34,813 controls and 4038 MO cases with 40,294 controls. After accounting for non-independence of gene-based test results, we examined the significance of the proportion of shared genes associated with MA and MO. Results: We found a significant overlap in genes associated with MA and MO. Of the total 1514 genes with a nominally significant gene-based p value (pgene-based ≤ 0.05) in the MA subgroup, 107 also produced pgene-based ≤ 0.05 in the MO subgroup. The proportion of overlapping genes is almost double the empirically derived null expectation, producing significant evidence of gene-based overlap (pleiotropy) (pbinomial-test = 1.5 × 10–4). Combining results across MA and MO, six genes produced genome-wide significant gene-based p values. Four of these genes (TRPM8, UFL1, FHL5 and LRP1) were located in close proximity to previously reported genome-wide significant SNPs for migraine, while two genes, TARBP2 and NPFF separated by just 259 bp on chromosome 12q13.13, represent a novel risk locus. The genes overlapping in both migraine types were enriched for functions related to inflammation, the cardiovascular system and connective tissue. Conclusions: Our results provide novel insight into the likely genes and biological mechanisms that underlie both MA and MO, and when combined with previous data, highlight the neuropeptide FF-amide peptide encoding gene (NPFF) as a novel candidate risk gene for both types of migraine.

Sopimusohjaus ohjausmenettelynä sairaanhoitopiirin ja terveyskeskusten yksiköissä ja niiden lääkärien työssä

This study concerns the implementation of steering by contracting in health care units and in the work of the doctors employed by them. The study analyses how contracting as a process is being implemented in hospital district units, health centres and in the work of their doctors, as well as how these units carry out their operations and patient care within the restrictions set by the contracts. Based on interviews with doctors, the study analyses the realisation of operations within the units from the doctors perspective and through their work. The key result of the study is that the steering impact of contracting was not felt at the level of practical work. The contracting was implemented by assigning the related tasks to management only. The management implemented the contract by managing their resources rather than by intervening in doctors activities or the content of their tasks. The steering did not extend to improving practical care processes. This allowed the unchanged continuation of core operations in an autonomous manner and in part, protected from the impacts of contracting. In health centres, the contract concluded was viewed as merely steering the operations of the hospital district and its implementation did not receive the support of the centres. The fact that primary health care and specialised health care constitute separate contracting parties had adverse effects on the contract s implementation and the integration of care. A theoretical review unveiled several reasons for the failure of steering by contracting to alter operations within units. These included the perception steering by contracting as a weak change incentive. The doctors shunned the introduction of an economic logic and ideology into health care and viewed steering by contracting as a hindrance to delivering care to patients and a disturbance to their work and patient relationships. Contracting caused tensions between representatives of the financial administration and health care professionals. It also caused internal tensions, while it had varying impacts on different specialities, including the introduction of varying potential to influence contracts. Most factors preventing the realisation of the steering objective could have been ameliorated through positive leadership. There is a need to bridge the gap between financial steering and patient work. Key measures include encouraging the commitment of middle management, supporting leadership expertise and identifying the right methods of contributing to a mutual understanding between the cultures of financing, administration and health care. Criticism of the purchasers expertise and the view that undersized orders are due to the purchaser s financial difficulties underlines the importance of the purchaser s size. Overly detailed, product-based contracts seemed to place the focus on the quantities and costs of services rather than health impacts and efficiency of operations. Bundling contracts into larger service packages would encourage the enhancement of operations. Steering by contracting represents unexploited potential: it could function as a forum for integrated regional planning of services, and the prioritisation and integration of care, and offer an opportunity and an incentive for developing core operations.

Women's progression to leadership: A project-based organisational perspective

This is a qualitative study of female underrepresentation in leadership roles in project-based organisations in Australia, specifically the construction and property development industries. Using a gender lens, the underlying structural and cultural barriers to women's advancement to leadership in those organisations was studied and, in particular, what challenges they face in their career advancement and what attempts they make to resolve those challenges. The findings show that the unique characteristics of project-based organisations, with their perpetual masculine work practices, embedded masculine logic, gender-based bias and masculine organisational culture, all maintain the pattern of underrepresentation of women.

Konsumerismi, potilaiden ja kuluttajien aktiivinen toiminta sekä erityisesti lääkäreiden kokemukset ja näkemykset potilaista kuluttajina

Consumerism emphasises the patient s position and freedom of choice. Consumerism is being promoted by a range of phenomena occurring in society and health care. Different actors hold different views on the patient as a consumer and on his or her participation. Consumer demand is created outside the patient physician relationship and the commercialisation of services generates new expectations with respect to physician s work. More and more patients may be interested in adopting a more equal position in the care relationship, and trying to negotiate with the physician or to even dictate how he or she should be cared for. In Finland, very little research has been conducted on patients and consumers organising themselves at national system level, patients as choosers, and physicians attitudes to various consumerist phenomena or the choice made by the patient. In the empirical data for this study, the term consumer-patient refers to active consumers and patients making choices related to their clinical care prior to a physician s diagnosis. Consumer-patients are also represented by consumer and patient organisations and movements. The main research question is: How do physicians regard the care choice made by the patient? This question is addressed from a perspective encompassing patients and consumers organised activities and individuals active behaviour in health care as well as physicians experiences and their views on patients as consumers making choices related to their care. The first part (Study I), examines the patient organisation field, information sources used including the websites of such organisations, files from Finland s Slot Machine Association, RAY, a survey conducted by a Finnish television news department and interviews of patient organisations. Based on observation and a physician survey, Study II examines physicians attitudes to the idea that patients could obtain information through consumer movements about physicians care practices before seeking medical care. Studies III−IV use a physician survey to examine physicians attitudes to direct-to-consumer-advertising of prescription drugs (DTCA) and their experiences and views of patient requests related to treatments and examinations. Study V uses comparative surveys to examine the attitudes of health care professionals and the population to the introduction of new technologies in health care, using genetic screenings and tests as an example. The number of patient organisations increased, with a particular escalation as of the 1990s. The characteristics and operating methods of the organisations varied greatly. Physicians organisations adopted a negative or neutral attitude towards the consumer movements idea of distributing information on care practices, whereas individual physicians attitudes were slightly more positive. Physicians regarded direct-to-consumer-advertising of prescription drugs as negative, but took a more permissive attitude towards indirect advertising. More than every third physician considered drug advertisements in general to be harmful or useless in the distribution of drug information to patients or consumers. More than half of physicians conducting patient work reported that they (very) often encountered patients who stated upon arrival for a consultation that they wanted specific treatments or examinations, and that the number of such situations had increased. Such situations were viewed as positive with regard to the care relationship by every fifth physician and as negative by two fifths. Physicians justified a reserved attitude to the patients consumer role by referring to their medical expertise and position as care decision-makers, the patient physician relationship and the public health care system. Reasons for a positive attitude included the patient s participation and co-operation, the patient physician relationship and the patient s knowledge. Professionals were more reserved than lay people about the introduction and extension of genetic technologies in health care. A significant minority of the physicians did not take a clear pro or con attitude to the patients consumer role or to the use of new technologies in health care. The physicians age, gender, place of work and specialisation influenced their attitudes to the patient s consumer role, and private physicians viewed it in a more positive light than those working in public health care. Active consumer-patients challenge the society to hold a discussion of the patient s choice, participation in care decision-making and participation in health care policy in general. Their transformation into customers and consumers implies not only a new division of individuals roles and powers, but also contributes to changing relationships between system level roles: between citizens and the state and between public and private health care. This phenomenon raises various issues related to health care policy. In conclusion, topics are presented for discussion, practical measures and further research. Keywords: health care, consumerism, distribution of technologies, commercialisation, physicians, patients, consumers, patient s choice, patient s role.

Doctor and Patient in Ghetto Theresienstadt Posters and Signs

Digital Image

Doctor and Patient Artworks

Postwar version of F 38323

Using Trichogramma Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) for insect pest biological control in cotton crops: an Australian perspective.

Trichogramma Westwood egg parasitoids alone generally fail to suppress heliothine pests when released in established cotton-growing regions. Factors hindering their success include indiscriminate use of detrimental insecticides, compensation for minimal pest larval hatch due to their activity via reduced larval cannibalism or mortality in general, singly laid heliothine eggs avoiding detection and asynchronous development benefiting host over parasitoid. Yet, despite these limitations, relatively large Trichogramma pretiosum Riley populations pervade and effectively suppress Helicoverpa (Hardwick) pests in Australian Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner)-transgenic cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., crops, especially in the Ord River Irrigation Area (ORIA) of tropical northern Australia, where their impact on the potentially resistant pest species, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), is considered integral to the local insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategy for continued, sustainable Bt-transgenic cotton production. When devoid of conventional insecticides, relatively warm and stable conditions of the early dry season in winter grown ORIA Bt-transgenic cotton crops are conducive to Trichogramma proliferation and biological control appears effective. Further, there is considerable scope to improve Trichogramma's biological control potential, in both the ORIA and established cotton-growing regions, via habitat manipulation. It is proposed that Trichogramma may prove equally effective in developing agricultural regions of monsoonal northern Australia, and that environmental constraints on Trichogramma survival, and those of other natural enemies, require due consideration prior to their successful application in biological control programs.