Zero-Reflectance Metafilms for Optimal Plasmonic Sensing

An ultrathin layer of metasurface that almost completely annihilates the reflection of light (>99.5%) over a wide range of incident angles (>80°) is experimentally demonstrated. Such zero-reflectance metafilms exhibit optimal performance for plasmonic sensing, since their sensitivity to changes of local refractive index is far superior to films of nonzero reflectance. Since both main detection mechanisms tracking intensity changes and wavelength shifts are improved, zero-reflectance metafilms are optimal for localized surface plasmon resonance molecular sensing. Such nanostructures have significant opportunities in many areas, including enhanced light harvesting as well as in developing high-performance molecular sensors for a wide range of chemical and biomedical applications.

Metrologia óptica com fibra polimérica

O presente trabalho teve por objectivo global o estudo e desenvolvimento de sensores baseados em fibra óptica polimérica. O crescimento da tecnologia polimérica nos últimos anos permitiu a introdução deste tipo de fibras ópticas na área das telecomunicações e no desenvolvimento de sensores. As vantagens associadas à metrologia óptica com fibra polimérica têm vindo a atrair as atenções da comunidade científica dado que permitem o desenvolvimento de sistemas de baixo-custo ou custo competitivo face às tecnologias convencionais. Dada a actualidade do tema proposto, descreve-se, numa primeira fase, a tecnologia em fibra óptica polimérica existente no mercado e o estado de arte de sensores em fibra óptica polimérica. Segue-se a descrição de dois tipos de sensores baseados em modulação de intensidade. Projectou-se um sensor extrínseco capaz de avaliar a quantidade de luz dispersa e absorvida por partículas suspensas num líquido. Foi efectuada a caracterização do sensor quanto à concentração de partículas suspensas, tamanho e reflectividade. O sensor foi testado no âmbito da monitorização ambiental, designadamente, na análise de turbidez em amostras de sedimentos recolhidos em áreas ardidas. O sistema desenvolvido foi comparado com um sistema comercial. Um sensor intrínseco, baseado no polimento lateral de fibra óptica polimérica, foi analisado analiticamente. O modelo teórico avalia o sensor em diferentes condições de macroencurvamento e de índice de refracção do meio envolvente. O modelo teórico foi validado positivamente através de resultados experimentais. Foi avaliada a sensibilidade à temperatura e os conhecimentos adquiridos foram aplicados no desenvolvimento de um sistema capaz de monitorizar a cura de diferentes materiais. É ainda apresentada uma técnica para melhorar a sensibilidade do sensor de curvatura através da aplicação de um revestimento na zona sensível. A dependência na curvatura da potência transmitida por uma fibra óptica polida lateralmente serviu de base ao desenvolvimento de uma joelheira e de uma cotoveleira instrumentada, capazes de avaliar quantitativamente o movimento articular. A necessidade de portabilidade levou ao desenvolvimento de um sistema sem fios para aquisição e transmissão de dados. Espera-se que os protótipos desenvolvidos venham a ter um impacto significativo em sistemas futuros aplicados à medicina física e reabilitação.

Sensores de Bragg para bioaplicações

Nas últimas décadas, os sensores de Bragg têm sido frequentemente utilizados em inúmeras aplicações, em resultado das características únicas desta tecnologia. Contudo, a comunidade científica tem feito um esforço contínuo em desenvolver sensores que respondam tanto quanto possível aos requisitos e interesses de cada aplicação em particular. As bioaplicações são um campo de crescente interesse pelos sensores de Bragg, atendendo à heterogeneidade e complexidade dos meios de análise em questão. No âmbito desta dissertação foi realizada uma análise teórica dos princípios de funcionamento das redes de Bragg, focada em redes uniformes e inclinadas. Foi também descrito o processo de produção de redes de Bragg regeneradas. Redes de Bragg uniformes foram aplicadas na caracterização da reacção de polimerização e cura de materiais dentários, nomeadamente resina para base de dentadura, cimentos e gessos. Foi feita uma análise comparativa do desempenho de diferentes tipos de cimentos e gessos. Em relação ao gesso foi ainda avaliada a influência do rácio água/pó nas propriedades do material. Devido à importância que o índice de refracção tem na detecção de substâncias, doenças e controlo de qualidade de produtos, foi desenvolvido um sensor de índice de refracção baseado numa rede de Bragg inclinada. Implementaram-se também sensores para medição simultânea de índice de refracção e deformação, índice de refracção e temperatura e índice de refracção, deformação e temperatura, todos baseados numa única rede inclinada. O último dispositivo foi validado em ambiente laboratorial. Com o propósito de desenvolver um sensor baseado em redes de Bragg para monitorização da deformação óssea, foi avaliada a biocompatibilidade da fibra óptica em cultura de células osteoblásticas, e analisada a integridade física e funcionalidade da rede de Bragg nesse meio. O interesse em aumentar a sensibilidade e alargar a gama de trabalho dos sensores conduziu ao revestimento das fibras ópticas. Atendendo ao potencial índole biológica e biomédica do trabalho, usou-se como material de recobrimento o diamante, dada a excelente resposta em termos de biocompatibilidade, resistência à corrosão, não toxicidade e afinidade para espécies químicas e biológicas. Os filmes foram obtidos por deposição química a partir da fase vapor assistida por filamento quente. Para além de amostras de fibra óptica, foram revestidas redes de Bragg uniformes e regeneradas. Os sensores revestidos com diamante foram caracterizados à deformação e à temperatura.

Híbridos orgânicos-inorgânicos para aplicações de baixo custo em óptica integrada

O objectivo desta tese é a utilização de materiais híbridos orgânicos-inorgânicos, designados por di-ureiasis modificados pela adição de tetra-propóxido de zircónio (Zr(i-OPr)4) estabilizado com ácido metacrílico (CH2=C(CH3)COOH), obtidos pela via sol-gel, para aplicações em dispositivos ópticos integrados de baixo custo. A estrutura local dos di-ureiasis com diferentes concentrações de propóxido de zircónio (20 a 80 % mol) foi estudada por difracção de raios-X, espalhamento de raios X a baixos ângulos, microscopia de força atómica, ressonância magnética nuclear dos núcleos dos átomos de 29Si e 13C, espectroscopia no infravermelho por transformada de Fourier, espectroscopia de Raman por transformada de Fourier e termogravimetria. A influência dos parâmetros de síntese, concentração de tetra propóxido de zircónio e rácio tetra propóxido de zircónio: ácido metacrilico na estrutura e propriedades das amostras em monólito e filmes finos (depositados pela técnica de deposição por rotação do substrato) foram avaliadas, permitindo obter amostras transparentes, fotopolimerizáveis e estáveis termicamente até aos 100 ºC. Foram determinadas as propriedades dos guias planares em substratos de vidro borosilicato e silício oxidado (1

Estudo da degradação do tempo de vida das fibras óticas e o seu impacte no desempenho das redes de comunicações

Este trabalho focou-se no estudo do impacte das condições ambientais, de instalação e de utilização na degradação da fibra ótica, que frequentemente resultam na redução do desempenho das fibras óticas. Entre este fatores, foram estudados os efeitos de ambientes agressivos para o revestimento da fibra, nomeadamente no tempo de vida e resistência. Foi também estudado o efeito da propagação de sinais óticos de elevadas potências em curvaturas apertadas e a sua influência na degradação do desempenho da fibra ótica. Ainda neste âmbito, foi também estudado o desempenho de fibras óticas insensíveis a curvtura e fibras dopadas com Érbio, sendo analisada a dinâmica do efeito rastilho nestas fibras. Como parte integrante das redes óticas, os conetores óticos são de extrema importância na sua estrutura. O seu desempenho será refletido na qualidade do serviço da rede, e por isso é determinante estudar os fatores que contribuem para a sua degradação e mau funcionamento. Assim, este trabalho apresenta um estudo do comportamento de conetores óticos perante situações de mau manuseamento (como são limpeza insuficiente e degradação física da face final). Em adição foi também dado ênfase à reutilização de fibra danificada pelo efeito rastilho no desenvolvimento de sensores, passíveis de serem utilizados na monitorização de índice de refração, pressão hidrostática, tensão ou alta temperatura. Este procedimento surge como uma solução de baixo custo para o desenvolvimento de sensores em fibra ótica a partir de fibra danificada e inutilizável para as suas habituais aplicações em transmissão e/ou reflexão de sinais óticos.

Conception d’un nouveau type de concentrateur solaire réduisant le besoin de suivi du soleil

Depuis longtemps, le Soleil est vu comme une source renouvelable d’intérêt pour combler nos besoins en énergie. Or, le coût prohibitif de l’énergie solaire a jusqu’à maintenant rendu celle-ci peu utilisée. Pour accroître son adoption, il faut absolument rendre son coût concurrentiel avec celui des énergies fossiles. Pour cela, plusieurs possibilités existent. L’une d’elles est l’utilisation d’un système optique pour concentrer la lumière. Cette thèse présente donc une solution basée sur la conception d’un nouveau type de concentrateur solaire de basse-moyenne concentration fait de polymère dans le but de réduire son coût de fabrication. Les performances de ce système compact utilisant des microlentilles ont ensuite été améliorées par l’ajout d’un gradient d’indice de réfraction dans la matrice polymérique. Une analyse sommaire du coût de l’énergie produite par de tels dispositifs permet ensuite de conclure que les systèmes développés dans le cadre de ce projet de recherche ont un potentiel commercial. Pour cette raison, le concept le plus prometteur basé sur l’utilisation d’un gradient d’indice afin d’accroître les performances a fait état du dépôt d’une demande de brevet.

Diffusion characteristics of ethylene glycol in skeletal muscle

Part of the optical clearing study in biological tissues concerns the determination of the diffusion characteristics of water and optical clearing agents in the subject tissue. Such information is sufficient to characterize the time dependence of the optical clearing mechanisms—tissue dehydration and refractive index (RI) matching. We have used a simple method based on collimated optical transmittance measurements made from muscle samples under treatment with aqueous solutions containing different concentrations of ethylene glycol (EG), to determine the diffusion time values of water and EG in skeletal muscle. By representing the estimated mean diffusion time values from each treatment as a function of agent concentration in solution, we could identify the real diffusion times for water and agent. These values allowed for the calculation of the correspondent diffusion coefficients for those fluids. With these results, we have demonstrated that the dehydration mechanism is the one that dominates optical clearing in the first minute of treatment, while the RI matching takes over the optical clearing operations after that and remains for a longer time of treatment up to about 10 min, as we could see for EG and thin tissue samples of 0.5 mm.

The characteristic time of glucose diffusion measured for muscle tissue at optical clearing

The study of agent diffusion in biological tissues is very important to understand and characterize the optical clearing effects and mechanisms involved: tissue dehydration and refractive index matching. From measurements made to study the optical clearing, it is obvious that light scattering is reduced and that the optical properties of the tissue are controlled in the process. On the other hand, optical measurements do not allow direct determination of the diffusion properties of the agent in the tissue and some calculations are necessary to estimate those properties. This fact is imposed by the occurrence of two fluxes at optical clearing: water typically directed out of and agent directed into the tissue. When the water content in the immersion solution is approximately the same as the free water content of the tissue, a balance is established for water and the agent flux dominates. To prove this concept experimentally, we have measured the collimated transmittance of skeletal muscle samples under treatment with aqueous solutions containing different concentrations of glucose. After estimating the mean diffusion time values for each of the treatments we have represented those values as a function of glucose concentration in solution. Such a representation presents a maximum diffusion time for a water content in solution equal to the tissue free water content. Such a maximum represents the real diffusion time of glucose in the muscle and with this value we could calculate the corresponding diffusion coefficient.

Rat muscle opacity decrease due to the osmosis of a simple mixture

It is known that the fibrous structure of muscle causes light scattering. This phenomenon occurs due to the refractive index discontinuities located between muscle fibers and interstitial fluid. To study the possibility of reducing light scattering inside muscle, we consider its spectral transmittance evolution during an immersion treatment with an optical clearing solution containing ethanol, glycerol, and distilled water. Our methodology consists of registering spectral transmittance of muscle samples while immersed in that solution. With the spectral data collected, we represent the transmittance evolution for some wavelengths during the treatment applied. Additionally, we study the variations that the treatment has caused on the samples regarding tissue refractive index and mass. By analyzing microscopic photographs of tissue cross section, we can also verify changes in the internal arrangement of muscle fibers caused by the immersion treatment. Due to a mathematical model that we develop, we can explain the variations observed in the studied parameters and estimate the amount of optical clearing agent that has diffused into the tissue samples during the immersion treatment. At the end of the study, we observe and explain the improvement in tissue spectral transmittance, which is approximately 65% after 20 min.

Comparative study of human erythrocytes by digital holographic microscopy, confocal microscopy, and impedance volume analyzer.

Red blood cell (RBC) parameters such as morphology, volume, refractive index, and hemoglobin content are of great importance for diagnostic purposes. Existing approaches require complicated calibration procedures and robust cell perturbation. As a result, reference values for normal RBC differ depending on the method used. We present a way for measuring parameters of intact individual RBCs by using digital holographic microscopy (DHM), a new interferometric and label-free technique with nanometric axial sensitivity. The results are compared with values achieved by conventional techniques for RBC of the same donor and previously published figures. A DHM equipped with a laser diode (lambda = 663 nm) was used to record holograms in an off-axis geometry. Measurements of both RBC refractive indices and volumes were achieved via monitoring the quantitative phase map of RBC by means of a sequential perfusion of two isotonic solutions with different refractive indices obtained by the use of Nycodenz (decoupling procedure). Volume of RBCs labeled by membrane dye Dil was analyzed by confocal microscopy. The mean cell volume (MCV), red blood cell distribution width (RDW), and mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were also measured with an impedance volume analyzer. DHM yielded RBC refractive index n = 1.418 +/- 0.012, volume 83 +/- 14 fl, MCH = 29.9 pg, and MCHC 362 +/- 40 g/l. Erythrocyte MCV, MCH, and MCHC achieved by an impedance volume analyzer were 82 fl, 28.6 pg, and 349 g/l, respectively. Confocal microscopy yielded 91 +/- 17 fl for RBC volume. In conclusion, DHM in combination with a decoupling procedure allows measuring noninvasively volume, refractive index, and hemoglobin content of single-living RBCs with a high accuracy.

Monocouches peptidiques auto-assemblées et applications dans le domaine des biocapteurs de résonance de plasmon de surfaces

Ces travaux visent à étendre les applications de la résonance de plasmons de surface (SPR) L’objectif est d’offrir des outils diagnostics plus rapides, efficaces et simple d’utilisation pour diagnostiquer ou effectuer le suivi de conditions cliniques. Pour se faire, un nouveau type d’instrumentation SPR basé sur l’utilisation d’un prisme d’inversion (dove) a permis d’atteindre une limite de détection (LOD) de 10-6 unité d’indice de réfraction (RIU), une valeur comparable aux instruments commerciaux complexes tout en demeurant peu dispendieux, robuste et simple d’utilisation. Les travaux présentés dans cet ouvrage visent, dans un second temps, à réduire les interactions nonspécifiques (NSB) entre la surface des biocapteurs SPR et les composants de la matrice biologique complexe telles que: l’urine, le lysat cellulaire, le sérum et le sang. Ces dernières induisent des réponses empêchant l’utilisation de biocapteurs SPR en milieux complexes. Les acides aminés (AA) offrent une grande variété de propriétés physico-chimiques permettant la mise au point de monocouches auto-assemblées (SAM) aux propriétés diverses. Initialement, 19 des 20 acides aminés naturels ont été attachés à l’acide 3-mercaptopropionique (3-MPA) formant des SAMs peptidomimétiques. La quantité d’interactions nonspécifiques engendrées par ces différentes surfaces a été mesurée en exposant ces surfaces au sérum sanguin bovin complet variant de 400 ng/cm² jusqu’à 800 ng/cm². La détection à l’aide de ces surfaces de la β-lactamase (une enzyme responsable de la résistance aux antibiotiques au niveau μM) a démontré la possibilité d’employer ces surfaces pour bâtir des biocapteurs SPR. Des peptides de longueur allant de 2 à 5 résidus attachés à 3-MPA ont été synthétisés sur support solide. Cette étude a démontré que l’augmentation de la longueur des peptides formés d’AA résistants aux NBS accroit leur résistance jusqu’à 5 résidus. Le composé le plus performant de ce type (3-MPA-(Ser)5-OH) a permis d’atteindre 180 ng/cm². Cette valeur est similaire à celle des meilleures surfaces disponibles commercialement, notamment les surfaces de polyethylène glycol (PEG) à 100 ng/cm². Des surfaces de 3-MPA-(Ser)5-OH ont permis l’étalonnage de la β-lactamase et sa quantification directe dans un lysat cellulaire. La LOD pour ces biocapteurs est de 10 nM. Une troisième génération de surfaces peptidiques binaires a permis la réduction de la NSB jusqu’à un niveau de 23±10 ng/cm² une valeur comparable aux meilleures surfaces disponibles. Ces surfaces ont permis l’étalonnage d’un indicateur potentiel du cancer la metalloprotéinase-3 de matrice (MMP-3). Les surfaces formées de peptides binaires (3-MPA-H3D2-OH) ont permis la quantification directe de la MMP-3 dans le sérum sanguin complet. Une quatrième génération de surfaces peptidiques a permis de réduire davantage le niveau de NSB jusqu’à une valeur de 12 ± 11 ng/cm². Ces surfaces ont été modifiées en y attachant une terminaison de type acide nitriloacétique (NTA) afin d’y attacher des biomolécules marquées par six résidus histidines terminaux. Ces surfaces ont permis le développement d’une méthode rapide de balayage des ligands ciblant le « cluster of differenciation-36 » (CD36). L’étude d’électroformation des monocouches de peptide a permis de déterminer les conditions de formation optimales d’une couche de 3-MPA-HHHDD-OH permettant ainsi la formation de monocouches résistantes au NSB en moins de 6 minutes en appliquant un potentiel de formation de 200mV vs Ag/AgCl.

Fabrication des films microstructurés et leurs caractéristiques en spectroscopie de résonance des plasmons de surface

Cette thèse caractérise les propriétés optiques des matériaux plasmoniques microstructurés et procède à l’évaluation des paramètres analytiques afin de les employer comme plateforme de biodétection en spectroscopie de résonance des plasmons de surface (SPR). Aux dimensions micrométriques, les matériaux plasmoniques présentent des caractéristiques optiques propres aux nano- et macromatériaux. La cartographie physicooptiques en SPR de matériaux méso- et microscopiques s’est effectuée à l’aide de films structurés de motifs périodiques triangulaires et circulaires fabriqués par une technique modifiée de lithographie par nanosphères (nanosphere lithography, NSL). À partir de cette vue d’ensemble, quelques films structurés ont été sélectionné en fonction d’aspects analytiques tels que la sensibilité et la résolution face aux variations d’indice de réfraction (RI) pour déterminer le potentiel de ces matériaux comme plateforme de biodetection. Les propriétés optiques distinctes des films microstructurés proviennent d’interactions résonantes entre les modes de plasmons de surface (SP) localisé et délocalisé identifiés par la relation de dispersion en SPR ainsi que l’imagerie Raman. Les conditions de résonance des modes SP dépendant de paramètres expérimentaux (λ, θ, η) tel qu’observés numériquement par rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA) et empiriquement. Ces travaux démontrent la nature plasmonique distincte des micro-matériaux et leur potentiel d’intégration aux techniques analytiques SPR existantes. Les matériaux plasmoniques micrométriques furent également étudiés pour l’implémentation de la SPR à une pointe de microscopie à force atomique (atomic force microscopy, AFM) combinant ainsi la spectroscopie à l’imagerie topographique. Des travaux préliminaires se sont concentrés sur la signature spectroscopique de leviers en silicium (Si) et en nitrure de silicium (Si3N4), l’impact d’un revêtement d’or sur les pointes et l’influence de milieu environnant. Une image d’origine plasmonique a été obtenue avec des leviers en Si3N4 revêtus d’or en transmission dans un environnement aqueux, indiquant ainsi le potentiel de ces pointes comme micro-biocapteur SPR. Ces résultats préliminaires servent de fondement pour orienter les prochaines investigations dans ce projet.

Étude des propriétés plasmoniques des réseaux de nanotrous

Les réseaux de nanotrous sont des structures plasmoniques ayant un énorme potentiel en tant que transducteurs pour la conception de biocapteurs. De telles structures sont prometteuses pour l’élaboration de biocapteurs capable d’effectuer du criblage à haut débit. L’intérêt de travailler avec des réseaux de nanotrous est dû à la simplicité d’excitation des polaritons de plasmons de surface en transmission directe, à la sensibilité et à la facilité de fabrication de ces senseurs. L’architecture de tels réseaux métalliques permet la conception de nanostructures ayant de multiples propriétés plasmoniques. L’intensité, la signature spectrale et la sensibilité du signal plasmonique sont grandement affectées par l’aspect physique du réseau de nanotrous. L’optimisation du signal plasmonique nécessite ainsi un ajustement du diamètre des trous, de la périodicité et de la composition métallique du réseau. L'agencement de l'ensemble de ces paramètres permet d'identifier une structure optimale possédant une périodicité de 1000 nm, un diamètre des nanotrous de 600-650 nm et un film métallique ayant une épaisseur de 125 nm d'or. Ce type de transducteur a une sensibilité en solution de 500-600 nm/RIU pour des bandes plasmoniques situées entre 600-700 nm. L'intérêt de travailler avec cette structure est la possibilité d'exciter les plasmons de polaritons de surface (SPPs) selon deux modes d'excitation : en transmission exaltée (EOT) ou en réflexion totale interne par résonance des plasmons de surface (SPR). Une comparaison entre les propriétés plasmoniques des senseurs selon les modes d'excitation permet de déterminer expérimentalement que le couplage de la lumière avec les ondes de SPP de Bloch (BW-SPPs) en transmission directe résulte en un champ électromagnétique davantage propagatif que localisé. D'un point de vue analytique, la biodétection de l'IgG en SPR est 6 fois plus sensible par rapport au mode EOT pour une même structure. Une étude du signal plasmonique associé au BW-SPP pour un certain mode de diffraction démontre que la distance de pénétration de ces structures en EOT est d'environ 140 nm. La limite de détection de l'IgG humain pour un réseau de nanotrous de 1000 nm de périodicité est d'environ 50 nM en EOT. Ce mémoire démontre la viabilité des réseaux de nanotrous pour effectuer de la biodétection par criblage à haut débit lors de prochaines recherches. L'investigation de l'effet de l'angle d'excitation en transmission exaltée par rapport au signal plasmonique associé au mode (1,0) d'un réseau de nanotrous de 820 nm d'or démontre que la sensibilité en solution n'est pas proportionnelle à la sensibilité en surface du senseur. En fait, une optimisation de l'angle d'incidence pour le mode (1,0) de diffraction des BW-SPP permet d'amplifier la sensibilité en surface du senseur jusqu'à 3-fois pour un angle de 13,3°. Ce mémoire démontre ainsi la nécessité d'optimiser l'angle d'excitation et les propriétés physiques du senseur afin de développer un transducteur de grande sensibilité basé sur l'excitation en transmission de réseaux de nanotrous.

Plasma Polymerised Organic Thin Films-A Study on the Structural, Electrical and Nonlinear Optical Properties for Possible Applications

This proposed thesis is entitled “Plasma Polymerised Organic Thin Films: A study on the Structural, Electrical, and Nonlinear Optical Properties for Possible Applications. Polymers and polymer based materials find enormous applications in the realm of electronics and optoelectronics. They are employed as both active and passive components in making various devices. Enormous research activities are going on in this area for the last three decades or so, and many useful contributions are made quite accidentally. Conducting polymers is such a discovery, and eversince the discovery of conducting polyacetylene, a new branch of science itself has emerged in the form of synthetic metals. Conducting polymers are useful materials for many applications like polymer displays, high density data storage, polymer FETs, polymer LEDs, photo voltaic devices and electrochemical cells. With the emergence of molecular electronics and its potential in finding useful applications, organic thin films are receiving an unusual attention by scientists and engineers alike. This is evident from the vast literature pertaining to this field appearing in various journals. Recently, computer aided design of organic molecules have added further impetus to the ongoing research activities in this area. Polymers, especially, conducting polymers can be prepared both in the bulk and in the thinfilm form. However, many applications necessitate that they are grown in the thin film form either as free standing or on appropriate substrates. As far as their bulk counterparts are concerned, they can be prepared by various polymerisation techniques such as chemical routes and electrochemical means. A survey of the literature reveals that polymers like polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, have been investigated with a view to studying their structural electrical and optical properties. Among the various alternate techniques employed for the preparation of polymer thin films, the method of plasma polymerisation needs special attention in this context. The technique of plasma polymerisation is an inexpensive method and often requires very less infra structure. This method includes the employment of ac, rf, dc, microwave and pulsed sources. They produce pinhole free homogeneous films on appropriate substrates under controlled conditions. In conventional plasma polymerisation set up, the monomer is fed into an evacuated chamber and an ac/rf/dc/ w/pulsed discharge is created which enables the monomer species to dissociate, leading to the formation of polymer thin films. However, it has been found that the structure and hence the properties exhibited by plasma polymerized thin films are quite different from that of their counterparts produced by other thin film preparation techniques such as electrochemical deposition or spin coating. The properties of these thin films can be tuned only if the interrelationship between the structure and other properties are understood from a fundamental point of view. So very often, a through evaluation of the various properties is a pre-requisite for tailoring the properties of the thin films for applications. It has been found that conjugation is a necessary condition for enhancing the conductivity of polymer thin films. RF technique of plasma polymerisation is an excellent tool to induce conjugation and this modifies the electrical properties too. Both oxidative and reductive doping can be employed to modify the electrical properties of the polymer thin films for various applications. This is where organic thin films based on polymers scored over inorganic thin films, where in large area devices can be fabricated with organic semiconductors which is difficult to achieve by inorganic materials. For such applications, a variety of polymers have been synthesized such as polyaniline, polythiophene, polypyrrole etc. There are newer polymers added to this family every now and then. There are many virgin areas where plasma polymers are yet to make a foray namely low-k dielectrics or as potential nonlinear optical materials such as optical limiters. There are also many materials which are not been prepared by the method of plasma polymerisation. Some of the materials which are not been dealt with are phenyl hydrazine and tea tree oil. The advantage of employing organic extracts like tea tree oil monomers as precursors for making plasma polymers is that there can be value addition to the already existing uses and possibility exists in converting them to electronic grade materials, especially semiconductors and optically active materials for photonic applications. One of the major motivations of this study is to synthesize plasma polymer thin films based on aniline, phenyl hydrazine, pyrrole, tea tree oil and eucalyptus oil by employing both rf and ac plasma polymerisation techniques. This will be carried out with the objective of growing thin films on various substrates such as glass, quartz and indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass. There are various properties namely structural, electrical, dielectric permittivity, nonlinear optical properties which are to be evaluated to establish the relationship with the structure and the other properties. Special emphasis will be laid in evaluating the optical parameters like refractive index (n), extinction coefficient (k), the real and imaginary components of dielectric constant and the optical transition energies of the polymer thin films from the spectroscopic ellipsometric studies. Apart from evaluating these physical constants, it is also possible to predict whether a material exhibit nonlinear optical properties by ellipsometric investigations. So further studies using open aperture z-scan technique in order to evaluate the nonlinear optical properties of a few selected samples which are potential nonlinear optical materials is another objective of the present study. It will be another endeavour to offer an appropriate explanation for the nonlinear optical properties displayed by these films. Doping of plasma polymers is found to modify both the electrical conductivity and optical properties. Iodine is found to modify the properties of the polymer thin films. However insitu iodine doping is tricky and the film often looses its stability because of the escape of iodine. An appropriate insitu technique of doping will be developed to dope iodine in to the plasma polymerized thin films. Doping of polymer thin films with iodine results in improved and modified optical and electrical properties. However it requires tools like FTIR and UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy to elucidate the structural and optical modifications imparted to the polymer films. This will be attempted here to establish the role of iodine in the modification of the properties exhibited by the films

Optical and electrical properties of co-sputtered amorphous transparent conducting zinc indium tin oxide thin films

Highly conductive and transparent thin films of amorphous zinc indium tin oxide are prepared at room temperature by co-sputtering of zinc 10 oxide and indium tin oxide. Cationic contents in the films are varied by adjusting the power to the sputtering targets. Optical transmission study of 11 films showed an average transmission greater than 85% across the visible region. Maximum conductivity of 6×102 S cm−1 is obtained for Zn/In/ 12 Sn atomic ratio 0.4/0.4/0.2 in the film. Hall mobility strongly depends on carrier concentration and maximum mobility obtained is 18 cm2 V−1 s−1 13 at a carrier concentration of 2.1×1020 cm−3. Optical band gap of films varied from 3.44 eV to 3 eV with the increase of zinc content in the film 14 while the refractive index of the films at 600 nm is about 2.0.