Molecular characterisation and disease severity of leptospirosis in Sri Lanka

Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonotic disease all over the world, important in tropical and subtropical areas. A majority of leptospirosis infected patients present as subclinical or mild disease while 5-10% may develop severe infection requiring hospitalisation and critical care. It is possible that several factors, such as the infecting serovar, level of leptospiraemia, host genetic factors and host immune response, may be important in predisposition towards severe disease. Different Leptospirastrains circulate in different geographical regions contributing to variable disease severity. Therefore, it is important to investigate the circulating strains at geographical locations during each outbreak for epidemiological studies and to support the clinical management of the patients. In this study immunochromatography, microscopic agglutination test and polymerase chain reaction were used to diagnose leptospirosis. Further restriction fragment length polymorphism and DNA sequencing methods were used to identify the circulating strains in two selected geographical regions of Sri Lanka.Leptospira interrogans, Leptospira borgpeterseniiandLeptospira kirschneristrains were identified to be circulating in western and southern provinces. L. interroganswas the predominant species circulating in western and southern provinces in 2013 and its presence was mainly associated with renal failure.

Stable isotope ecology of Miocene large mammals from Sandelzhausen, southern Germany

The carbon, oxygen, and strontium isotope composition of enamel from teeth of large Miocene herbivorous mammals from Sandelzhausen (MN5, late Early/early Middle Miocene) in the North Alpine foreland basin, were analyzed to infer diet and habitat. The mean enamel delta(13)C value of -11.4 +/- 1.0% (n = 53) for the nine taxa analyzed (including proboscideans, cervids, suids, chalicotheres, equids, rhinocerotids) indicates a pure C(3) plant diet for all mammals. (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratios of similar to 0.710 higher than those from teeth of the western Molasse Basin (0.708-0.709) seem to indicate preferential feeding of the mammals in the northeastern Molasse Basin. The sympatric herbivores have different mean delta(13)C and delta(18)O values which support diet partitioning and/or use of different habitats within a C(3) plant ecosystem. Especially the three sympatric rhinoceroses Plesiaceratherium fahlbuschi, Lartetotherium sansaniense, and Prosantorhinus germanicus show clear partitioning of plants and/or habitats. The palaeomerycid Germanomeryx fahlbuschi was a canopy folivore in moderately closed environments whereas Metaschizotherium bavaricum (Chalicotheriidae) and P. germanicus (Rhinocerotidae) were browsers in more closed forest environments. The horse Anchitherium aurelianense was probably a more generalized feeder than assumed from its dental morphology. The forest hog Hyotherium soemmeringi has the highest delta(13)C and lowest delta(18)O value of all analyzed taxa, possibly related to a frugivorous diet. Most taxa were water-dependent browsers that record meteoric water delta(18)O values of about -5.6 +/- 0.7% Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW). Using a modern-day mean annual air temperature (MAT)-delta(18)OH(2)O relation a MAT of 19.3 +/- 1.5 degrees C can be reconstructed for Sandelzhausen. A Gomphotherium subtapiroideum tusk serially sampled for delta(18)O values does not record a clear pattern of seasonality. Thus most taxa were C(3) browsers in a forested and humid floodplain environment in the Molasse Basin, which experienced a warm-temperate to subtropical climate and possibly low seasonality.

Variation of the Chlorophyll a Related to Sea Surface Temperature, Wind and Geostrophic Currents in the Cape Verde Region Using Satellite Data

We present a comparative analysis of satellite derived climatologies in the Cape Verde region (CV). In order to establish chlorophyll a variability, in relation to other oceanographic phenomena, a set of, relatively long (from five to eight years), time series of chlorophyll a, sea surface temperature, wind and geostrophic currents, were ensembled for the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA). We studied seasonal and inter-annual variability of phytoplankton concentration, in relation to the rest of the variables, with a special focus in CV. We compared the situation within the archipelago with those of the surrounding marine environments, such as the North West African Upwelling (NWAU), North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (NASTG), North Equatorial Counter Current (NECC) and Guinea Dome (GD). At the seasonal scale, CV region behaves partly as the surrounding areas, nevertheless, some autochthonous features were also found. The maximum peak of the pigment having a positive correlation with temperature is found at the end of the year for all the points in the archipelago; a less remarkable rise with negative correlation is also detected in February for points CV2 and CV4. This is behavior that none of the surrounding environments have shown. This enrichment was found to be preceded by a drastic drop in wind intensity (SW Monsoon) during summer months. The inter-annual analysis shows a tendency for decreasing of the chlorophyll a concentration.

Variation of the Chlorophyll a Related to Sea Surface Temperature, Wind and Geostrophic Currents in the Cape Verde Region Using Satellite Data

We present a comparative analysis of satellite derived climatologies in the Cape Verde region (CV). In order to establish chlorophyll a variability, in relation to other oceanographic phenomena, a set of, relatively long (from five to eight years), time series of chlorophyll a, sea surface temperature, wind and geostrophic currents, were ensembled for the Eastern Central Atlantic (ECA). We studied seasonal and inter-annual variability of phytoplankton concentration, in relation to the rest of the variables, with a special focus in CV. We compared the situation within the archipelago with those of the surrounding marine environments, such as the North West African Upwelling (NWAU), North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (NASTG), North Equatorial Counter Current (NECC) and Guinea Dome (GD). At the seasonal scale, CV region behaves partly as the surrounding areas, nevertheless, some autochthonous features were also found. The maximum peak of the pigment having a positive correlation with temperature is found at the end of the year for all the points in the archipelago; a less remarkable rise with negative correlation is also detected in February for points CV2 and CV4. This is behavior that none of the surrounding environments have shown. This enrichment was found to be preceded by a drastic drop in wind intensity (SW Monsoon) during summer months. The inter-annual analysis shows a tendency for decreasing of the chlorophyll a concentration.

Hybridization and Population Structure of the Culex Pipiens Complex in the Islands of Macaronesia

The Culex pipiens complex includes two widespread mosquito vector species, Cx. pipiens and Cx. quinquefasciatus. The distribution of these species varies in latitude, with the former being present in temperate regions and the latter in tropical and subtropical regions. However, their distribution range overlaps in certain areas and interspecific hybridization has been documented. Genetic introgression between these species may have epidemiological repercussions for West Nile virus (WNV) transmission. Bayesian clustering analysis based on multilocus genotypes of 12 microsatellites was used to determine levels of hybridization between these two species in Macaronesian islands, the only contact zone described in West Africa. The distribution of the two species reflects both the islands’ biogeography and historical aspects of human colonization. Madeira Island displayed a homogenous population of Cx. pipiens, whereas Cape Verde showed a more intriguing scenario with extensive hybridization. In the islands of Brava and Santiago, only Cx. quinquefasciatus was found, while in Fogo and Maio high hybrid rates (~40%) between the two species were detected. Within the admixed populations, second-generation hybrids (~50%) were identified suggesting a lack of isolation mechanisms. The observed levels of hybridization may locally potentiate the transmission to humans of zoonotic arboviruses such as WNV.

ESPÉCIES DO GÉNERO CURVULARIA (FUNGOS ANAMÓRFICOS: HYPHOMYCETES) NA ILHA DE SANTIAGO, CABO VERDE

Nos estudos sobre a micoflora de muitos ecossistemas os fungos do género Curvularia Boedijn 1933, constituem um dos mais fascinantes grupos, devido à frequência com que são observados especímenes do género e ao elevado número de espécies que são normalmente identificadas. Apesar da maioria dos táxones do género ser conhecida como saprófita em diferentes substratos vegetais e no solo, podendo ainda ser isolada a partir do solo e do ar, muitas espécies são fitopatogénicas, sobretudo em gramíneas e em regiões de clima tropical e subtropical (SIVANESAN 1987). Um pequeno número de espécies pode raramente originar doenças em animais, incluindo humanos, surgindo como agentes de onicomicoses, sinusite alérgica, pneumonia, endocardite e alergia broncopulmonar (CARTER & BOUDREAUX 2004). Descrito com a espécie tipo C. lunata (Wakker) Boedijn, o género Curvularia permitiu acomodar espécies da família Dematiaceae que possuíam conidióforos macronematosos, mononematosos, direitos ou flexuosos, frequentemente geniculados, por vezes nodosos, células conidiogénicas politétricas, integradas, terminais e simpodiais, fragmoconídios solitários, acropleurógenos por proliferação subterminal do conidióforo, oliváceos a castanhos, elipsóides, cilíndricos, obovóides ou piriformes, três ou mais septos transversais, terceira célula ou segunda e terceira distintamente maiores e escuras, muitas vezes desigualmente curvos devido ao alargamento de uma ou duas células centrais, raramente direitos, septos rígidos, hilo truncado ou protuberante (ELLIS 1971). O género actualmente é composto por mais de 40 táxones que se distinguem por diferenças mais ou menos evidentes na morfologia dos conídios, número de septos e aspectos culturais (SIVANESAN 1987, HOSOKAWA et al. 2003, SIVANESAN et al. 2003, ZHANG-MENG & ZHANG 2003, ZHANG-MENG et al. 2004, CHUNG 2005). Algumas espécies possuem teleomorfo conhecido no género Cochliobolus Drechsler 1934, formando ascósporos filiformes paralelos ou frouxamente enrolados em espiral, característica não evidenciada pela espécie tipo do género, C. heterostrophus (Drechsler) Drechsler, teleomorfo de Bipolaris maydis (Nisik. & Miyake) Shoem., na qual os ascósporos se mostram enrolados formando uma espiral fechada. Por isso, teleomorfos dos fungos do género Curvularia são considerados por alguns autores como sendo do género Pseudocochliobolus Tsuda, Ueyama & Nishih. 1978, que é tido como uma sinonímia de Cochliobolus (ALCORN 1983, SIVANESAN 1987). De notar, no entanto, que sendo filogeneticamente próximo do género Bipolaris Shoem. 1959, as suas espécies apresentam semelhanças morfológicas com espécies do género Bipolaris que têm conídios pequenos e direitos e estudos com análise de sequências ITS e com o marcador enzimático gliceraldeído-3-P desidrogenase mostraram que partilham teleomorfo no grupo 2 do género Cochliobolus (BERBEE et al. 1999). A variabilidade morfológica observada nos fungos enquadrados em Curvularia levou a que ao ser criado o género as espécies fossem separadas em três grupos, ‘geniculata’, com a espécie-tipo C. geniculata (Tracy & Earle) Boedijn, ‘lunata’, com a espécie-tipo C. lunata (Tracy & Earle) Boedijn, e ‘maculans’, com a espécie-tipo C. maculans (Bancroft) Boedijn (=C. eragrostidis (Henn.) Mey.), que se diferenciaram pela forma dos conídios e número de septos (CORBETTA 1964). Nos grupos ‘lunata’ e ‘maculans’ ficaram colocadas as espécies com conídios 3-septados e no grupo ‘geniculata’ as espécies que tinham conídios 4- septados ou com maior número de septos. As espécies do grupo ‘lunata’ distinguiram-se das do grupo ‘maculans’ principalmente por apresentarem curvatura mais pronunciada, célula mediana mais volumosa e habitual presença de estroma em cultura. O reconhecimento das características principais do género Curvularia é relativamente fácil, o que permite que seja normalmente possível a identificação ao género de um qualquer espécimen. No entanto, a identificação em espécie é por vezes complicada pelas descrições vagas e ausência de ilustrações em trabalhos mais antigos, inconstância de características morfológicas e biométricas dos esporos, causada por diferentes condições em que ocorre o crescimento, e sobreposição dos valores das medidas apresentadas por diferentes autores (TSUDA & UEYAMA 1982, HOSOKAWA et al. 2003). Contudo, esta situação não impede que a identificação das espécies continue a ser feita numa aproximação fenotípica, com base em características morfológicas e culturais. Recentemente, as espécies C. fallax Boedijn, C. geniculata (Tracy & Earle) Boedijn e C. senegalensis (Speg.) Subram., do grupo ‘geniculata’, que eram aceites como táxones válidos em monografias clássicas do género (ELLIS 1971, SIVANESAN 1987) mostraram-se interférteis (HOSOKAWA et al. 2003), vindo a ser consideradas, com base em características morfológicas e análise de DNA total por RFLP (HOSOKAWA et al. 2003) e na análise da sequência do gene Brn1 (SUN et al. 2003), como espécie única e sinonimizadas com C. geniculata. Sabido que a diversidade dos fungos que ocorrem nos diferentes ecossistemas de Cabo Verde tem sido pouco estudada, iniciou-se um levantamento da micoflora associada a gramíneas, tendo-se obtido uma colecção de Magnaporthe grisea (Hebert) Barr (LIMA & DUCLOS 2001) e de espécies dos géneros Bipolaris, Exserohilum Leonard & Suggs e Curvularia. O presente trabalho tem como objectivo descrever e ilustrar as espécies de Curvularia identificadas na ilha de Santiago e contribuir para o melhor conhecimento do género naquele país. Na bibliografia consultada não foram encontradas referências a fungos do género Curvularia para Cabo Verde.

Current status of the whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus as an invasive pest in the CapeVerte Islands

In the last three decades, the spiralling whitefly (Aleurodicus dispersus) has become an important international pest. The movement of plants and parts of plants (such as fruits) in international trade and tourism, and by natural dispersal, has favoured its introduction to new areas. In common with others whiteflies of economic importance, the immature and adult stages cause direct feeding damage by piercing and sucking of sap from foliage, and indirect damage following the accumulation all over host plants of honeydew and waxy flocculent material produced by the insects. Spiralling whitefly is a pest of tropical and subtropical crops, and highly polyphagous. Up to the 1970s, it had been recorded on 44 genera of plants, belonging to 26 botanical families (Mound & Halsey, 1978). This situation changed with the dispersal of the pest to new areas. Nowadays, the spiralling whitefly is one of the major pest of vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops around the globe (Lambkin, 1999). Important host crops include: banana (Musa sapientum), Citrus spp., coconut (Cocos nocifera), eggplant (Solanum melanogena), guava (Psidium guajava), Hibiscus rosa sinensis, Indian almond (Terminalia catappa), papya (Carica papaya), Rosa sp. and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) (Saminathan & Jayaraj, 2001). Spiralling whitefly has its origin in the tropical Americas, including Brazil. Although the pest has been recorded only once in Brasil, in the 1920s in the state of Bahia (Bondar, 1923), it now has official quarantine status because of its economic importance. In the Cape Verte Islands, on the West African coast, the pest was initially introduced in the first half of 2000; it has since become established, reaching urban, natural and agricultural areas of the islands that constitute the archipelago. Since then, the pest has been causing damage to many native plants, ornamentals and cultivated food crops (Anon., 2001; Monteiro, 2004). The present study was done in order to produce an inventory of the most common host plants of spiralling whitefly in this new habitat.

O gênero Xylocopa Latreille no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil (Hymenoptera, Anthophoridae)

The genus Xylocopa Latreille in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Hymenoptera, Anthophoridae). A survey of the genus Xylocopa Latreille, 1802 is given for Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost State of Brazil. Data are based on several studies on the bee fauna of southern Brazil and on unpublished observations. A key is provided to the species (males and females) and information on distribution, nesting habits and relation to flowers. Rio Grande do Sul is strikingly rich in species of Xylocopa because of the diversity of habitats and its geographic position in the transition of tropical/subtropical to temperate climate. Nineteen species, classified into ten subgenera, have been recorded in Rio Grande do Sul. Here we maintain the subgenera Ioxylocopa, Megaxylocopa and Xylocospila, which were put into synonymy recently by Minckley (1998). The species are: Xylocopa (Dasyxylocopa) bimaculata Friese, 1903; Xylocopa (Ioxylocopa) chrysopoda Schrottky, 1902; Xylocopa (Megaxylocopa) frontalis (Olivier, 1789); Xylocopa (Nanoxylocopa) ciliata Burmeister, 1876; Xylocopa (Neoxylocopa) augusti Lepeletier, 1841; Xylocopa (N.) brasilianorum (Linnaeus, 1767); Xylocopa (N.) haematospila Moure, 1951; Xylocopa (N.) hirsutissima Maidl, 1912; Xylocopa (N.) nigrocincta Smith, 1854; Xylocopa (N.) ordinaria Smith, 1874; Xylocopa (N.) suspecta Moure & Camargo, 1988; Xylocopa (N.) tacanensis Moure, 1949; Xylocopa (Schonnherria) macrops Lepeletier, 1841; Xylocopa (S.) simillima Smith, 1854; Xylocopa (S.) splendidula Lepeletier, 1841; Xylocopa (S.) varians Smith, 1874; Xylocopa (Stenoxylocopa) artifex Smith, 1874; Xylocopa (Xylocopoda) elegans Hurd & Moure, 1963; Xylocopa (Xylocopsis) funesta Maidl, 1912; Xylocopa (Xylocospila) bambusae Schrottky, 1902. Xylocopa tacanensis is for the first time recorded in Brasil.

Tornabenea ribeirensis (Apiaceaeb a new species from São Nicolau, Cape Verde Islands (West Africa)

Many species of Apiaceae are found in the Macaronesien Region. Several have been introduccd by human activities, but a number of taxa is endemic to the different archipelagos or even rrstrictcd to a single island. The following enumeration is based mainly on HANSEN & SUNDING ( 1993). In the Arores 28 different taxa of Apiaceae occur; among them four endemic species [AUIMI; hrrrrii WATSON, A. trifoliatum (WATSON) TKEL., Clrtrc~,y~l~~ll~r~~~ cl:oricrm TREL.. SOErich trwrictr GUTIINICK ex SEUB.]. In Madeira the Apiaceae are very diverse and consist ol’ 29 species and subspecies. From the archipelago two monotypic genera, rC/c/trtio. velitru~rr t/ccipicvr.s (SCHRAD. & J. C. WENDL.) Ho~+hl. md kJorli:ia edu[is LOWE and ~hrcc cndcmic species [Oemmrlre diwricore (R. BR.) MABB.. I/nperrr/orio lotvei COSS. and Burrirr~r hre~$~lirrnr LOWE] are described. The Canary Islands have the highest numbcr of plant-species and a high level of endemism. 5-l taxa of Apiaceae are recorded including three endemic genera (Rtrrheopsis A. HANSEX & KUNKEL, Todm-oa PARL. and Tiqyrmm PARL.) and further I5 endemic taxa. The Apiaceae are represented in the Cape Verde Islands by I2 species. Most of the taxa have been introduced by human activities (LOBIN & ZIZKA 1957) like Amvhm grm’eo- 1efr.s L., Apirm grmvolerrs L, Foerricrrhrr urlgore MILL.. Corimrtlru~t~ srrtirvrrrr L. or Petrosilerrm crisprrm (FRILL.) A.W.HILL. These species are cultivated and some of them later became \\esdy. Other species like Ciclosper- UWL /e/~fo/~/l~ll~rrtr (PER%) SPRAGUE (= Apimr leproplr~llrr~rr) are weeds of cultivated grounds or wasted lands. All these species are today widespread in temperate. subtropical or tropical regions all over the world. The only native species are to be found in the endemic genus To~wI~~I~~~ PARL.

Características del ambiente marino frente a la costa peruana

El ambiente marino frente al Perú es modificado considerablemente por eventos transcendentes de características opuestas: El Niño y La Niña, los mismos que se presentan alternadamente, con diferente intensidad y duración. La temperatura presenta sus máximos y mínimos valores en verano e invierno, respectivamente;ambos E:xtremos dela salinidad se registran en el verano; los nutrientes presentan sus mínimos valores en verano y máximos en el invierno, intensificándose el afloramiento. Frente a la costa peruana se presentan masas de aguas superficiales y subsuperficiales procedentes de la región subtropical, tropical, ecuatorial y de la región subantártica. La Corriente Peruana, se subdivide en Corriente Costera Peruana y Corriente Oceánica Peruana. En la capa subsuperficial se presentan la Corriente Peruana Subsuperficial y la Extensión Sur de la Corriente de Cromwell. El afloramiento, mecanismo esencial de la alta producción marina, se produce sobre todo en las zonas de los 4-5°S,7-8°S, 11-12°S y 14-15°S. Durante las últimas tres décadas tres eventos El Niño y dos Niñas de gran intensidad han afectado severamente el ecosistema marino peruano.

First report of parasitism on pupae of Opsiphanes invirae amplificatus Stichel (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) by Conura (Conura) maculata (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera, Chalcididae) in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

First report of parasitism on pupae of Opsiphanes invirae amplificatus Stichel (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) by Conura (Conura) maculata (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera, Chalcididae) in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This scientific note records the parasitism on pupae of Opsiphanes invirae amplificatus Stichel (1904) by Conura (Conura) maculata (Fabricius). This is a report of this interaction in the subtropical region of South America and the first report of the occurrence of this parasitoid in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

Aspectos oceanográficos durante los experimentos de calibraciones hidroacusticas con anchovetas vivas. Crucero BIC Humboldt 9711 de Huacho a Pacasmayo

El crucero se desarrolló del 7 al 19 de noviembre de 1997, dividiéndose en dos etapas: La etapa I de calibración de equipos tuvo lugar en dos puntos muy próximos frente a Huacho, entre el 8 y el 13 de noviembre. La etapa II, de rastreo de pesca, se efectuó del 13 al 19 del mismo mes. La temperatura superficial en los puntos de calibración fluctuó de 18,8° C a 19,9° C con mínimos valores en horas de la noche y madrugada y las máximas después de medio día. Las salinidades de origen subtropical variaron de 35,12 a 35,22%. Durante el rastreo y pesca entre Huacho y Pacasmayo los valores de temperatura, salinidad y oxígeno variaron de 19,1 a 24,4° C, 35,14 a 35,37% y 3,3 a 6,9 mL/L, respectivamente. Se registraron anomalías térmicas positivas de +2,6 a +6,4° C, valores ascendentes de sur a norte y presencia de aguas subtropicales superficiales en toda la columna de agua.

Carabid beetle assemblages in three environments in the Araucaria humid forest of southern Brazil

Carabid beetle assemblages in three environments in the Araucaria humid forest of southern Brazil. Carabidae is composed mainly by ground-dwelling predator beetles. It is the fourth most diverse group within Coleoptera, but its diversity in the Neotropical region is understudied. Here we describe and analyze the diversity of carabid beetles in a region of subtropical rain forest dominated by Araucaria angustifolia with different landscapes. Three areas were chosen in an environmental integrity gradient: primary forests, secondary forests and old Pinus plantations. Pitfall traps were taken monthly, in a total of 14 samples per area. 1733 adult carabid beetles, belonging to 18 species, were sampled. There were differences in richness and abundance between the sampled areas. The total scores followed the same tendency: primary forests (14 species/747 individuals), secondary forests (13/631) and Pinus forests (10/355). An analysis of similarity shows differences in species composition, for both areas and seasons. Galerita lacordarei was the most abundant species for all samples and seasons. Carabid species show similar responses in accordance with habitat heterogeneity and disturbance. The abundance of Galerita lacordarei was influenced by temperature, for all sampled sites. Environmental changes affect the carabid assemblages and decrease diversity, possibly interfering in local dynamics. Seasonality patterns seem to indicate an increase in individual movement during summer, probably in search of resources. It is suggested that microhabitat patchiness is probably an important factor affecting carabid beetle diversity at small spatial scales.

Cartas promedio de temperatura superficial del mar en setiembre y octubre de 1972

Presenta información sobre la temperatura superficial del mar que se caracteriza por presentar aguas de origen subtropical que influye en el comportamiento del ambiente marino del litoral peruano.

Climatología de la salinidad superficial del mar frente a la costa peruana 1960-2008

Análisis de la información recopilada por el Instituto del Mar del Perú (IMARPE), durante el período 1960 - 2008, en el área del Pacífico sudeste comprendida entre los 3 y 18°S y desde la costa hasta los 86°W, con datos filtrados y procesados. Se obtuvo promedios por cuadrados Marsden de un grado; se elaboraron tablas y mapas patrón mensuales, estacionales y anuales, una serie de tiempo de medias mensuales para la banda costera dentro de las 60 mn, referida a tres periodos: a) 1960-1975, b) 1976-1992 y c) 1993-2008, además de una serie de promedios mensuales por cuadrados Marsden de un grado de la salinidad superficial del mar (SSM), para las zonas norte (Tumbes y Paita), central (Chimbote, Callao y Pisco), y sur (San Juan e Ilo). La SSM frente al Perú presentó promedios mensuales entre 29,47 y 35,94 ups, que varían de acuerdo a la estación del año, situación geográfica, topografía, factores meteorológicos, descargas de los ríos, etc. Los promedios mensuales patrón (multianuales) tuvieron rango de 32,92 a 35,62 ups; en verano (enero, febrero y marzo) 33,30 a 35,62 ups y en invierno (julio, agosto y setiembre) 33,96 a 35,44 ups; se registraron valores de transición en otoño (abril, mayo, junio) y primavera (octubre, noviembre y diciembre). La salinidad <34,00 ups corresponde a masas de agua de la región tropical, principalmente del golfo de Panamá (alta precipitación), en la zona costera al norte de 4°30'S. Aguas con salinidades de 34,00 - 34,80 ups se extienden por el lado costero hasta 6°S en verano, y se repliegan en invierno. Alta salinidad superficial corresponde a las aguas de la región subtropical (alta evaporación), que se presentan principalmente al sur de los 6°S con valores de 35,1 hasta 35,60 ups. Estas aguas tienen mayor aproximación a la costa durante el verano austral. En toda el área de estudio, el rango de la fluctuación anual de los promedios patrón de la SSM fue de 32,92 a 35,62 ups (± 2,70 ups en el año); con variación mensual de -0,1 a 0,1 ups al sur de 6°S; y de -0,3 a 0,3 ups al norte de 6°S, la mayor variación se da en la zona norte (Tumbes y Paita). La serie de tiempo mensual (1960 - 2008) en la franja costera (0 - 60 mn), entre los 3°S y 18°S, mostró importantes fluctuaciones decadales, destacando salinidad relativamente baja en los años 60 y después de El Niño (EN) 1997 - 98 hasta la actualidad.