Measurement of the band bending and surface dipole at chemically functionalized Si(111)/vacuum interfaces

The core-level energy shifts observed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) have been used to determine the band bending at Si(111) surfaces terminated with Si-Br, Si-H, and Si-CH₃ groups, respectively. The surface termination influenced the band bending, with the Si 2p_3/2 binding energy affected more by the surface chemistry than by the dopant type. The highest binding energies were measured on Si(111)-Br (whose Fermi level was positioned near the conduction band at the surface), followed by Si(111)-H, followed by Si(111)-CH₃ (whose Fermi level was positioned near mid-gap at the surface). Si(111)-CH₃ surfaces exposed to Br₂(g) yielded the lowest binding energies, with the Fermi level positioned between mid-gap and the valence band. The Fermi level position of Br₂(g)-exposed Si(111)-CH₃ was consistent with the presence of negatively charged bromine-containing ions on such surfaces. The binding energies of all of the species detected on the surface (C, O, Br) shifted with the band bending, illustrating the importance of isolating the effects of band bending when measuring chemical shifts on semiconductor surfaces. The influence of band bending was confirmed by surface photovoltage (SPV) measurements, which showed that the core levels shifted toward their flat-band values upon illumination. Where applicable, the contribution from the X-ray source to the SPV was isolated and quantified. Work functions were measured by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), allowing for calculation of the sign and magnitude of the surface dipole in such systems. The values of the surface dipoles were in good agreement with previous measurements as well as with electronegativity considerations. The binding energies of the adventitious carbon signals were affected by band bending as well as by the surface dipole. A model of band bending in which charged surface states are located exterior to the surface dipole is consistent with the XPS and UPS behavior of the chemically functionalized Si(111) surfaces investigated herein.

Techniques for strength measurement at high pressures and strain-rates using transverse waves

The study of the strength of a material is relevant to a variety of applications including automobile collisions, armor penetration and inertial confinement fusion. Although dynamic behavior of materials at high pressures and strain-rates has been studied extensively using plate impact experiments, the results provide measurements in one direction only. Material behavior that is dependent on strength is unaccounted for. The research in this study proposes two novel configurations to mitigate this problem.

The first configuration introduced is the oblique wedge experiment, which is comprised of a driver material, an angled target of interest and a backing material used to measure in-situ velocities. Upon impact, a shock wave is generated in the driver material. As the shock encounters the angled target, it is reflected back into the driver and transmitted into the target. Due to the angle of obliquity of the incident wave, a transverse wave is generated that allows the target to be subjected to shear while being compressed by the initial longitudinal shock such that the material does not slip. Using numerical simulations, this study shows that a variety of oblique wedge configurations can be used to study the shear response of materials and this can be extended to strength measurement as well. Experiments were performed on an oblique wedge setup with a copper impactor, polymethylmethacrylate driver, aluminum 6061-t6 target, and a lithium fluoride window. Particle velocities were measured using laser interferometry and results agree well with the simulations.

The second novel configuration is the y-cut quartz sandwich design, which uses the anisotropic properties of y-cut quartz to generate a shear wave that is transmitted into a thin sample. By using an anvil material to back the thin sample, particle velocities measured at the rear surface of the backing plate can be implemented to calculate the shear stress in the material and subsequently the strength. Numerical simulations were conducted to show that this configuration has the ability to measure the strength for a variety of materials.

Measurement of two-photon excitation cross-section of a new symmetric-type fluorene derivative

A new dye, 2,7-bis(4-methoxystyryl)-9,9-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-9H-fluorene, has been synthesized, which is a D-pi-D symmetrical-type fluorene derivative. The two-photon absorption (TPA) of this new dye has been experimentally studied by comparable two-photon-induced fluorescence method. This new dye has a TPA cross-section of 84 x 10(-50) cm(4) s/photon at 790 nm/13 fs. (c) 2004 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Inter-stage line ratio of He- and Li-like Ti emissions for the electron temperature measurement

Under coronal conditions, the steady state rate-equations are used to calculate the inter-stage line ratios between Li-like Is(2)2p(P-2(3/2))-> 1s(2)2s -> ((2) S-1/2) and He-like 1s2p (P-1(1))-> 1s(2) (S-1(0)) transitions for Ti in the electronic temperature ranges from 0.1 keV to 20 keV. The results show that the. temperature sensitivities are higher at the electronic temperature less than 5000 eV and the temperature sensitivities will decrease with the increase of electronic temperature.

The gated integration technique for the accurate measurement of the autocorrelation function of speckle intensities scattered from random phase screens

A new approach based on the gated integration technique is proposed for the accurate measurement of the autocorrelation function of speckle intensities scattered from a random phase screen. The Boxcar used for this technique in the acquisition of the speckle intensity data integrates the photoelectric signal during its sampling gate open, and it repeats the sampling by a preset number, in. The average analog of the in samplings output by the Boxcar enhances the signal-to-noise ratio by root m, because the repeated sampling and the average make the useful speckle signals stable, while the randomly varied photoelectric noise is suppressed by 1/ root m. In the experiment, we use an analog-to-digital converter module to synchronize all the actions such as the stepped movement of the phase screen, the repeated sampling, the readout of the averaged output of the Boxcar, etc. The experimental results show that speckle signals are better recovered from contaminated signals, and the autocorrelation function with the secondary maximum is obtained, indicating that the accuracy of the measurement of the autocorrelation function is greatly improved by the gated integration technique. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Measurement of the neutron beta decay asymmetry using ultracold neutrons

The free neutron beta decay correlation A₀ between neutron polarization and electron emission direction provides the strongest constraint on the ratio λ = g_A/g_V of the Axial-vector to Vector coupling constants in Weak decay. In conjunction with the CKM Matrix element V_ud and the neutron lifetime τ_n, λ provides a test of Standard Model assumptions for the Weak interaction. Leading high-precision measurements of A₀ and τ_n in the 1995-2005 time period showed discrepancies with prior measurements and Standard Model predictions for the relationship between λ, τ_n, and V_ud. The UCNA experiment was developed to measure A₀ from decay of polarized ultracold neutrons (UCN), providing a complementary determination of λ with different systematic uncertainties from prior cold neutron beam experiments. This dissertation describes analysis of the dataset collected by UCNA in 2010, with emphasis on detector response calibrations and systematics. The UCNA measurement is placed in the context of the most recent τ_n results and cold neutron A₀ experiments.

Measurement of the neutron (^3He) spin structure function at low Q^2 : a connection between the Bjorken and Drell-Hearn-Gerasimov sum rules

The spin dependent cross sections, σT_1/2 and σT_3/2 , and asymmetries, A_∥ and A_⊥ for ³He have been measured at the Jefferson Lab's Hall A facility. The inclusive scattering process ³He(e,e)X was performed for initial beam energies ranging from 0.86 to 5.1 GeV, at a scattering angle of 15.5°. Data includes measurements from the quasielastic peak, resonance region, and the deep inelastic regime. An approximation for the extended Gerasimov-Drell-Hearn integral is presented at a 4-momentum transfer Q² of 0.2-1.0 GeV².

Also presented are results on the performance of the polarized ³He target. Polarization of ³He was achieved by the process of spin-exchange collisions with optically pumped rubidium vapor. The ³He polarization was monitored using the NMR technique of adiabatic fast passage (AFP). The average target polarization was approximately 35% and was determined to have a systematic uncertainty of roughly ±4% relative.

Magnetic trapping of atomic tritium for neutrino mass measurement

Improved measurement of the neutrino mass via β decay spectroscopy requires the development of new energy measurement techniques and a new β decay source. A promising proposal is to measure the β energy by the frequency of the cyclotron radiation emitted in a magnetic field and to use a high purity atomic tritium source. This thesis examines the feasibility of using a magnetic trap to create and maintain such a source. We demonstrate that the loss rate due to β decay heating is not a limiting factor for the design. We also calculate the loss rate due to evaporative cooling and propose that the tritium can be cooled sufficiently during trap loading as to render this negligible. We further demonstrate a design for the magnetic field which produces a highly uniform field over a large fraction of the trap volume as needed for cyclotron frequency spectroscopy while still providing effective trapping.

Macroscopically Dissipative Systems with Underlying Microscopic Dynamics : Properties and Limits of Measurement

While some of the deepest results in nature are those that give explicit bounds between important physical quantities, some of the most intriguing and celebrated of such bounds come from fields where there is still a great deal of disagreement and confusion regarding even the most fundamental aspects of the theories. For example, in quantum mechanics, there is still no complete consensus as to whether the limitations associated with Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle derive from an inherent randomness in physics, or rather from limitations in the measurement process itself, resulting from phenomena like back action. Likewise, the second law of thermodynamics makes a statement regarding the increase in entropy of closed systems, yet the theory itself has neither a universally-accepted definition of equilibrium, nor an adequate explanation of how a system with underlying microscopically Hamiltonian dynamics (reversible) settles into a fixed distribution.

Motivated by these physical theories, and perhaps their inconsistencies, in this thesis we use dynamical systems theory to investigate how the very simplest of systems, even with no physical constraints, are characterized by bounds that give limits to the ability to make measurements on them. Using an existing interpretation, we start by examining how dissipative systems can be viewed as high-dimensional lossless systems, and how taking this view necessarily implies the existence of a noise process that results from the uncertainty in the initial system state. This fluctuation-dissipation result plays a central role in a measurement model that we examine, in particular describing how noise is inevitably injected into a system during a measurement, noise that can be viewed as originating either from the randomness of the many degrees of freedom of the measurement device, or of the environment. This noise constitutes one component of measurement back action, and ultimately imposes limits on measurement uncertainty. Depending on the assumptions we make about active devices, and their limitations, this back action can be offset to varying degrees via control. It turns out that using active devices to reduce measurement back action leads to estimation problems that have non-zero uncertainty lower bounds, the most interesting of which arise when the observed system is lossless. One such lower bound, a main contribution of this work, can be viewed as a classical version of a Heisenberg uncertainty relation between the system's position and momentum. We finally also revisit the murky question of how macroscopic dissipation appears from lossless dynamics, and propose alternative approaches for framing the question using existing systematic methods of model reduction.