Analysis of surface hardness of artificially aged resin composites

This study evaluated the effect of artificially accelerated aging (AAA) on the surface hardness of eight composite resins: Filtek Z250, Filtek Supreme, 4 Seasons, Herculite, P60, Tetric Ceram, Charisma, and Filtek Z100. Sixteen specimens were made from the test piece of each material, using an 8.0 × 2.0 mm teflon matrix. After 24 hours, eight specimens from each material were submitted to three surface hardness readings using a Shimadzu Microhardness Tester for 5 seconds at a load of 50 gf. The other eight specimens remained in the artificially accelerated aging machine for 382 hours and were submitted to the same surface hardness analysis. The means of each test specimen were submitted to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p > 0.05), ANOVA and Tukey test (p < 0.05). With regard to hardness (F = 86.74, p < 0.0001) the analysis showed significant differences among the resin composite brands. But aging did not influence the hardness of any of the resin composites (F = 0.39, p = 0.53). In this study, there was interaction between the resin composite brand and the aging factors (F = 4.51, p < 0.0002). It was concluded that notwithstanding the type of resin, AAA did not influence surface hardness. However, with regard to hardness there was a significant difference among the resin brands.

Cell therapy prevents structural, functional and molecular remodeling of remote non-infarcted myocardium

Background/objectives: Therapy using bone marrow (BM) cells has been tested experimentally and clinically due to the potential ability to restore cardiac function by regenerating lost myocytes or increasing the survival of tissues at risk after myocardial infarction (MI). In this study we aimed to evaluate whether BM-derived mononuclear cell (MNC) implantation can positively influence the post-MI structural remodeling, contractility and Ca(2 +)-handling proteins of the remote non-infarcted tissue in rats. Methods and results: After 48 h of MI induction, saline or BM-MNC were injected. Six weeks later, MI scars were slightly smaller and thicker, and cardiac dilatation was just partially prevented by cell therapy. However, the cardiac performance under hemodynamic stress was totally preserved in the BM-MNC treated group if compared to the untreated group, associated with normal contractility of remote myocardium as analyzed in vitro. The impaired post-rest potentiation of contractile force, associated with decreased protein expression of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2 +-ATPase and phosphorylated-phospholamban and overexpression of Na(+)/Ca(2 +) exchanger, were prevented by BM-MNC, indicating preservation of the Ca(2 +) handling. Finally, pathological changes on remodeled remote tissue such as myocyte hypertrophy, interstitial fibrosis and capillary rarefaction were also mitigated by cell therapy. Conclusions: BM-MNC therapy was able to prevent cardiac structural and molecular remodeling after MI, avoiding pathological changes on Ca(2 +)-handling proteins and preserving contractile behavior of the viable myocardium, which could be the major contributor to the improvements of global cardiac performance after cell transplantation despite that scar tissue still exists.

Antismooth Muscle and Antiactin Antibodies Are Indirect Markers of Histological and Biochemical Activity of Autoimmune Hepatitis

Reactivity and titers of autoantibodies vary during the course of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), and some autoantibodies have been associated with disease activity and adverse outcomes after treatment. The aim of this study was to assess the autoantibody behavior in AIH and its significance as predictors of biochemical and histological remission. A total of 117 patients with AIH (mean age 18.6 [4-69] years) were evaluated and tested for auto- antibodies at disease onset and successively (mean 3.2 [2-6] times) after a mean follow-up evaluation of 70 [20-185] months. Antismooth muscle (ASMA), antiliver kidney micro- some type 1 (anti-LKM1), antiliver cytosol type 1 (anti-LC1), antimitochondrial, antinu- clear (ANA), and antiactin antibodies (AAA) were determined at disease onset and 379 other times during the follow-up evaluation through indirect immunofluorescence in rodent tissues, HEp-2 cells, and human fibroblasts. Anti-SLA/LP were assessed 45 times in the follow-up evaluation of 19 patients using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Upon admission, AIH types 1 and 2 were observed in 95 and 17 patients, respectively. Five subjects had AIH with anti-SLA/LP as the sole markers. Patients initially negative for AAA did not develop these antibodies thereafter. ANA were detected de novo in six and three subjects with AIH types 1 and 2, respectively. After treatment, only ASMA ( > 1:80) and AAA ( > 1:40) were significantly associated with biochemical (76.9% and 79.8%) and histological features (100% and 100%) of disease activity ( P < 0.001). Conclusion: With the exception of ANA, the autoantibody profile does not markedly vary in the course of AIH. The persistence of high titers of ASMA and/or AAA in patients with AIH is associated with disease activity.

Structure of the PilZ-FimXEAL-c-di-GMP complex responsible for the regulation of bacterial type IV pilus biogenesis

Signal transduction pathways mediated by cyclic-bis(3'→5')-dimeric GMP (c-di-GMP) control many important and complex behaviors in bacteria. C-di-GMP is synthesized through the action of GGDEF domains that possess diguanylate cyclase activity and is degraded by EAL or HD-GYP domains with phosphodiesterase activity. There is mounting evidence that some important c-di-GMP-mediated pathways require protein-protein interactions between members of the GGDEF, EAL, HD-GYP and PilZ protein domain families. For example, interactions have been observed between PilZ and the EAL domain from FimX of Xanthomonas citri (Xac). FimX and PilZ are involved in the regulation of type IV pilus biogenesis via interactions of the latter with the hexameric PilB ATPase associated with the bacterial inner membrane. Here, we present the crystal structure of the ternary complex made up of PilZ, the FimX EAL domain (FimXEAL) and c-di-GMP. PilZ interacts principally with the lobe region and the N-terminal linker helix of the FimXEAL. These interactions involve a hydrophobic surface made up of amino acids conserved in a non-canonical family of PilZ domains that lack intrinsic c-di-GMP binding ability and strand complementation that joins β-sheets from both proteins. Interestingly, the c-di-GMP binds to isolated FimXEAL and to the PilZ-FimXEAL complex in a novel conformation encountered in c-di-GMP-protein complexes in which one of the two glycosidic bonds is in a rare syn conformation while the other adopts the more common anti conformation. The structure points to a means by which c-di-GMP and PilZ binding could be coupled to FimX and PilB conformational states

Resistance exercise acutely enhances mesenteric artery insulin-induced relaxation in healthy rats

AIMS: We evaluated the mechanisms involved in insulin-induced vasodilatation after acute resistance exercise in healthy rats. MAIN METHODS: Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups: control (CT), electrically stimulated (ES) and resistance exercise (RE). Immediately after acute RE (15 sets with 10 repetitions at 70% of maximal intensity), the animals were sacrificed and rings of mesenteric artery were mounted in an isometric system. After this, concentration-response curves to insulin were performed in control condition and in the presence of LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor), L-NAME (NOS inhibitor), L-NAME+TEA (K(+) channels inhibitor), LY294002+BQ123 (ET-A antagonist) or ouabain (Na(+)/K(+) ATPase inhibitor). KEY FINDINGS: Acute RE increased insulin-induced vasorelaxation as compared to control (CT: Rmax=7.3 ± 0.4% and RE: Rmax=15.8 ± 0.8%; p<0.001). NOS inhibition reduced (p<0.001) this vasorelaxation from both groups (CT: Rmax=2.0 ± 0.3%, and RE: Rmax=-1.2 ± 0.1%), while PI3K inhibition abolished the vasorelaxation in CT (Rmax=-0.1±0.3%, p<0.001), and caused vasoconstriction in RE (Rmax=-6.5 ± 0.6%). That insulin-induced vasoconstriction on PI3K inhibition was abolished (p<0.001) by the ET-A antagonist (Rmax=2.9 ± 0.4%). Additionally, acute RE enhanced (p<0.001) the functional activity of the ouabain-sensitive Na(+)/K(+) ATPase activity (Rmax=10.7 ± 0.4%) and of the K(+) channels (Rmax=-6.1±0.5%; p<0.001) in the insulin-induced vasorelaxation as compared to CT. SIGNIFICANCE: Such results suggest that acute RE promotes enhanced insulin-induced vasodilatation, which could act as a fine tuning to vascular tone.

Chromatin Remodeling by BRG1 and SNF2H : Biochemistry and Function

Chromatin is a highly dynamic, regulatory component in the process of transcription, repair, recombination and replication. The BRG1 and SNF2H proteins are ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling proteins that modulate chromatin structure to regulate DNA accessibility for DNA-binding proteins involved in these processes. The BRG1 protein is a central ATPase of the SWI/SNF complexes involved in chromatin remodeling associated with regulation of transcription. SWI/SNF complexes are biochemically hetero-geneous but little is known about the unique functional characteristics of the various forms. We have shown that SWI/SNF activity in SW13 cells affects actin filament organization dependent on the RhoA signaling pathway. We have further shown that the biochemical composition of SWI/SNF complexes qualitatively affects the remodeling activity and that the composition of biochemically purified SWI/SNF complexes does not reflect the patterns of chromatin binding of individual subunits. Chromatin binding assays (ChIP) reveal variations among subunits believed to be constitutive, suggesting that the plasticity in SWI/SNF complex composition is greater than suspected. We have also discovered an interaction between BRG1 and the splicing factor Prp8, linking SWI/SNF activity to mRNA processing. We propose a model whereby parts of the biochemical heterogeneity is a result of function and that the local chromatin environment to which the complex is recruited affect SWI/SNF composition. We have also isolated the novel B-WICH complex that contains WSTF, SNF2H, the splicing factor SAP155, the RNA helicase II/Guα, the transcription factor Myb-binding protein 1a, the transcription factor/DNA repair protein CSB and the RNA processing factor DEK. The formation of this complex is dependent on active transcription and links chromatin remodeling by SNF2H to RNA processing. By linking chromatin remodeling complexes with RNA processing proteins our work has begun to build a bridge between chromatin and RNA, suggesting that factors in chromatin associated assemblies translocate onto the growing nascent RNA.

Organismi acquatici e ambiente: meccanismi biochimici di interazione, risposta e adattamento

The research is focused on the relationship between some Mg2+-dependent ATPase activities of plasma- and mitochondrial membranes from tissues of cultured marine bivalve molluscs and potentially stressful environmental conditions, such as the exposure to contaminants both of natural origin (ammonia nitrogen, the main contaminant of aquaculture plants) and of anthropic source (alkyltins). The two filter-feeding bivalve species selected colonize different habitats: the common mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis binds to hard substrates and the Philippine clam Tapes philippinarum burrows into sea bottom sandy beds. The choice of typical species of coastal waters, extremely suitable for environmental studies due to their features of poor motility, resistance to transport and great filtering efficiency, may constitute a model to evaluate responses to contaminants of membrane-bound enzyme activities involved in key biochemical mechanisms, namely cell ionic regulation and mitochondrial energy production. In vitro and in vitro approaches have been pursued. In vitro assays were carried out by adding the contaminants (NH4Cl and alkyltins) directly to the ATPase reaction media. In vivo experiments were carried out by exposing mussels to various tributyl tin (TBT) concentrations under controlled conditions in aquaria. ATPase activities were determined spectrophotometrically according to the principles of the method of Fiske and Subbarow (1925). The main results obtained are detailed below. In Tapes philippinarum the interaction of NH4 +, the main form of ammonia nitrogen at physiological and seawater pHs, with the Na,K-ATPase and the ouabaininsensitive Na-ATPase was investigated in vitro on gill and mantle microsomal membranes. The proven replacement by NH4 +of K+ in the activation of the Na,KATPase and of Na+ in the activation of the ouabain-insensitive ATPase displayed similar enzyme affinity for the substituted cation. on the one hand this finding may represent one of the possible mechanisms of ammonia toxicity and, on the other, it supports the hypothesis that NH4 + can be transported across the plasma membrane through the two ATPases. In this case both microsomal ATPases may be involved and co-operate, at least under peculiar circumstances, to nitrogen excretion and ammonia detoxification mechanisms in bivalve molluscs. The two ATPase activities stimulated by NH4 + maintained their typical response to the glycoside ouabain, specific inhibitor of the Na,K-ATPase, being the Na++ NH4 +-activated ATPase even more susceptive to the inhibitor and the ouabain-insensitive ATPase activity activated indifferently by Na+ or NH4 + unaffected by up to 10-2 M ouabain. In vitro assays were carried out to evaluate the response of the two Na-dependent ATPases to organotins in clams and mussels and to investigate the interaction of TBT with mussel mitochondrial oligomycin-sensitive Mg-ATPase. Since no literature data were available, the optimal assay conditions and oligomycin sensitivity of mussel mitochondrial MgATPase were determined. In T. philippinarum the ouabain-insensitive Na-ATPase was found to be refractory to TBT both in the gills and in the mantle, whereas the Na,K-ATPase was progressively inhibited by increasing TBT doses; the enzyme inhibition was more pronounced in the gills than in the mantle. In both tissues of M. galloprovincialis the Na,K-ATPase inhibition by alkyltins decreased in the order TBT>DBT(dibutyltin)>>MBT(monobutyltin)=TeET(tetraethyltin) (no effect). Mussel Na-ATPase confirmed its refractorimess to TBT and derivatives both in the gills and in the mantle. These results indicate that the Na,K-ATPase inhibition decreases as the number of alkyl chains bound to tin decreases; however a certain polarity of the organotin molecule is required to yield Na,K-ATPase inhibition, since no enzyme inhibition occurred in the presence of tetraalkyl-substituted derivatives such as TeET . Assays carried out in the presence of the dithioerythritol (DTE) pointed out that the sulphhydrylic agent is capable to prevent the Na,K-ATPase inhibition by TBT, thus suggesting that the inhibitor may link to -SH groups of the enzyme complex.. Finally, the different effect of alkyltins on the two Na-dependent ATPases may constitute a further tool to differentiate between the two enzyme activities. These results add to the wealth of literature data describing different responses of the two enzyme activities to endogenous and exogenous modulators . Mussel mitochondrial Mg-ATPase was also found to be in vitro inhibited by TBT both in the gills and in the mantle: the enzyme inhibition followed non competitive kinetics. The failed effect of DTE pointed out that in this case the interaction of TBT with the enzyme complex is probably different from that with the Na,K-ATPase. The results are consistent with literature data showing that alkyltin may interact with enzyme structures with different mechanisms. Mussel exposure to different TBT sublethal doses in aquaria was carried out for 120 hours. Two samplings (after 24 and 120 hrs) were performed in order to evaluate a short-term response of gill and mantle Na,K-ATPase, ouabain-insensitive Na-ATPase and Mg-ATPase activities. The in vivo response to the contaminants of the enzyme activities under study was shown to be partially different from that pointed out in the in vitro assays. Mitochondrial Mg-ATPase activity appeared to be activated in TBTexposed mussels with respect to control ones, thus confirming the complexity of evaluating in vivo responses of the enzyme activities to contaminants, due to possible interactions of toxicants with molluscan metabolism. Concluding, the whole of data point out that microsomal and mitochondrial ATPase activities of bivalve molluscs are generally responsive to environmental contaminants and suggest that in some cases membrane-bound enzyme activities may represent the molecular target of their toxicity. Since the Na,K-ATPase, the Na-ATPase and the Mg-ATPase activities are poorly studied in marine bivalves, this research may contribute to enlarge knowledge in this quite unexplored field.

Festkörperunterstützte Lipid-Modellmembranen auf Gold zur Rekonstitution von Membranproteinen

Festkörperunterstützte Lipid-Modellmembranen auf Goldzur Rekonstitution von Membranproteinen Ziel der Arbeit war der Aufbau von Lipid-Modellmembranen auf Goldelektroden in welchen die funktionelle Aktivität von rekonstituierten Membranproteinen über elektrochemische Methoden nachgewiesen werden kann.Im Rahmen der Arbeit wurden Lipidbilayer mit und ohne hydrophile Ethylenglykol-Spacer durch Kombination von Selbstorganisation, Langmuir-Blodgett-Kuhn-Techniken und Vesikelfusion aufgebaut. Dabei dienten Thiolipide zur Verankerung der Membranen auf der Goldelektrode und es wurden diverse Wege verfolgt, deren Ankerdichte auf dem Substrat einzustellen.Eine Studie zum Aufbau von festkörperunterstützten Lipidbilayern durch Fusion von Vesikeln auf binäre Alkanthiol-/Hydroxythiol-Monolagen mit definierter Oberflächenenergie zeigte, daß eine minimale Grenzflächenenergie (Monolayer/Wasser) existiert, unterhalb welcher die Fusion nicht mehr zu einer zusätzlichen Monolage, sondern lediglich zur Ausbildung von adsorbierten oder teilgespreiteten Vesikeln führt.Zur Charakterisierung der Membranen wurden Oberflächenplasmonenresonanz, Impedanzspektroskopie, zyklische Voltammetrie, elektrochemische reduktive Desorption, Rasterkraftmikroskopie und Kontaktwinkelmessungen herangezogen.In die Modellmembranen wurden Membranproteine (Porin, Annexin V, H+-ATPase) sowie ganze Membranfragmente (Bande 3 aus roten Blutzellen) rekonstituiert und mittels elektrochemischer Methoden auf ihre funktionelle Aktivität überprüft.

Composti organostannici nell'ambiente marino e membrane biologiche: risposte molecolari e biochimiche nei molluschi bivalvi

Organotin compounds are worldwide diffused environmental contaminants, mainly as consequence of their extensive past use as biocides in antifouling paints. In spite of law restrictions, due to unwanted effects, organotin still persist in waters, being poorly degraded, easily resuspended from sediments and bioaccumulated in exposed organisms. The widespread toxicity and the possible threat to humans, likely to be organotin-exposed through contaminated seafood, make organotin interactions with biomolecules an intriguing biochemical topic, apart from a matter of ecotoxicological concern. Among organotins, tributyltin (TBT) is long known as the most dangerous and abundant chemical species in the Mediterranean Sea. Due to its amphiphilic nature, provided by three lipophilic arms and an electrophilic tin core, TBT can be easily incorporated in biomembranes and affect their functionality. Accordingly, it is known as a membrane-active toxicant and a mitochondrial poison. Up to now the molecular action modes of TBT are still partially unclear and poorly explored in bivalve mollusks, even if the latter play a not neglectable role in the marine trophic chain and efficiently accumulate organotins. The bivalve mollusk Mytilus galloprovincialis, selected for all experiments, is widely cultivated in the Mediterranean and currently used in ecotoxicological studies. Most work of this thesis was devoted to TBT effects on mussel mitochondria, but other possible targets of TBT were also considered. A great deal of literature points out TBT as endocrine disrupter and the masculinization of female marine gastropods, the so-called imposex, currently signals environmental organotin contamination. The hormonal status of TBT-exposed mussels and the possible interaction between hormones and contaminants in modulating microsomal hydroxilases, involved in steroid hormone and organotin detoxification, were the research topics in the period spent in Barcelona (Marco Polo fellowship). The variegated experimental approach, which consisted of two exposure experiments and in vitro tests, and the choice of selected tissues of M. galloprovincialis, the midgut gland for mitochondrial and microsomal preparations for subsequent laboratory assays and the gonads for the endocrine evaluations, aimed at drawing a clarifying pattern on the molecular mechanisms involved in organotin toxicity. TBT was promptly incorporated in midgut gland mitochondria of adult mussels exposed to 0.5 and 1.0 μg/L TBT, and partially degraded to DBT. TBT incorporation was accompanied by a decrease in the mitochondrial oligomycin-sensitive Mg-ATPase activity, while the coexistent oligomycin-insensitive fraction was unaffected. Mitochondrial fatty acids showed a clear rise in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after 120 hr of TBT exposure, mainly referable to an increase in 22:6 level. TBT was also shown to inhibit the ATP hydrolytic activity of the mitochondrial F1FO complex in vitro and to promote an apparent loss of oligomycin sensitivity at higher than 1.0 μM concentration. The complex dose-dependent profile of the inhibition curve lead to the hypothesis of multiple TBT binding sites. At lower than 1.0 μM TBT concentrations the non competitive enzyme inhibition by TBT was ascribed to the non covalent binding of TBT to FO subunit. On the other hand the observed drop in oligomycin sensitivity at higher than 1.0 μM TBT could be related to the onset of covalent bonds involving thiolic groups on the enzyme structure, apparently reached only at high TBT levels. The mitochondrial respiratory complexes were in vitro affected by TBT, apart from the cytocrome c oxidase which was apparently refractory to the contaminant. The most striking inhibitory effect was shown on complex I, and ascribed to possible covalent bonds of TBT with –SH groups on the enzyme complexes. This mechanism, shouldered by the progressive decrease of free cystein residues in the presence of increasing TBT concentrations, suggests that the onset of covalent tin-sulphur bonds in distinct protein structures may constitute the molecular basis of widespread TBT effects on mitochondrial complexes. Energy production disturbances, in turn affecting energy consuming mechanisms, could be involved in other cellular changes. Mussels exposed to a wide range of TBT concentrations (20 - 200 and 2000 ng/L respectively) did not show any change in testosterone and estrogen levels in mature gonads. Most hormones were in the non-biologically active esterified form both in control and in TBT-treated mussels. Probably the endocrine status of sexually mature mussels could be refractory even to high TBT doses. In mussel digestive gland the high biological variability of microsomal 7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin-O-Debenzyloxylase (BFCOD) activity, taken as a measure of CYP3A-like efficiency, probably concealed any enzyme response to TBT exposure. On the other hand the TBT-driven enhancement of BFCOD activity in vitro was once again ascribed to covalent binding to thiol groups which, in this case, would stimulate the enzyme activity. In mussels from Barcelona harbour, a highly contaminated site, the enzyme showed a decreased affinity for the 7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (BCF) substrate with respect to mussel sampled from Ebro Delta, a non-polluted marine site. Contaminant exposure may thus alter the kinetic features of enzymes involved in detoxification mechanisms. Contaminants and steroid hormones were clearly shown to mutually interact in the modulation of detoxification mechanisms. The xenoestrogen 17α-ethylenyl estradiol (EE2) displayed a non-competitive mixed inhibition of CYP3A-like activity by a preferential bond to the free enzyme both in Barcelona harbour and Ebro Delta mussels. The possible interaction with co-present contaminants in Barcelona harbour mussels apparently lessened the formation of the ternary complex enzyme-EE2-BCF. The whole of data confirms TBT as membrane toxicant in mussels as in other species and stresses TBT covalent binding to protein thiols as a widespread mechanism of membrane-bound-enzyme activity modulation by the contaminant.

Valutazione delle componenti plasmatiche, cellulari e genetiche coinvolte nell'aneurisma dell'aorta addominale

Background: Kasashima et al hanno individuato nella popolazione giapponese un sottogruppo di aneurismi aortici addominali (AAA) infiammatori con le caratteristiche clinico patologiche della Malattia autoimmune Sistemica IgG4 Correlata. La distinzione tra i diversi gruppi di AAA è clinicamente importante sia per il follow up che per il trattamento di questa patologia. Obiettivo dello studio era la valutazione della componente flogistica, vascolare e stromale della parete aortica aneurismatica, la ricerca di aneurismi infiammatori ed in particolare di AAA- IgG4 correlati anche nella popolazione caucasica. Materiali e metodi: Sono stati esaminati i dati relativi a 21 pazienti trattati chirurgicamente per AAA presso l’Unità Operativa di Chirurgia Vascolare di Ferrara. Sono state eseguite analisi immunoistochimiche di prelievi intraoperatori di parete aortica aneurismatica. Risultati: I dati emersi hanno identificato 3 sottopopolazioni di pazienti con AAA: aneurismi di tipo aterosclerotico con negatività ai markers infiammatori (AAAa), aneurismi infiammatori con positività ai markers infiammatori e negatività per le IgG4 (AAAI) ed infine aneurismi infiammatori con positività alle IgG4 (AAAI-IgG4). Conclusioni: Questo studio ha confermato l’ipotesi che la malattia aneurismatica IgG4 correlata è presente anche nella popolazione caucasica. Con il proseguimento del nostro studio sarà interessante verificare la conferma di questi dati anche in altri pazienti al fine di ricercare la miglior strategia terapeutica e minimizzare il rischio di complicanze.

Modulation der Genexpression und des neuronalen Zelltods durch das Amyloid-Vorläufer-Protein (APP)

Das Amyloid-Vorläufer-Protein (APP) spielt eine zentrale Rolle in der Entstehung und Entwicklung von Morbus Alzheimer. Hierbei ist die proteolytische Prozessierung von APP von entscheidender Bedeutung. Das Verhältnis von neurotoxischen und neuroprotektiven Spaltprodukten, die über den amyloidogenen und nicht-amyloidogenen Weg der APP-Prozessierung gebildeten werden, ist für das Überleben von Neuronen und deren Resistenz gegen zytotoxische Stress-Stimuli von hoher Relevanz. Störungen der Calcium-Homöostase sind ein bekanntes Phänomen bei Morbus Alzheimer. Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Rolle von überexprimiertem APP in der Regulation des neuronalen Zelltods nach Calcium Freisetzung untersucht. Die Calcium Freisetzung aus dem endoplasmatischen Retikulum wurde durch die Inhibition der sarko- und endoplasmatischen Calcium-ATPasen (SERCA) ausgelöst. Dies führt zur Induktion der sogenannten „unfolded protein response“ (UPR) und zu einer Aktivierung von Effektor-Caspasen. Für APP-überexprimierende PC12 Zellen konnte bereits zuvor eine im Vergleich zur Kontrolle nach der durch Calcium Freisetzung-induzierten Apoptose eine erhöhte intrazelluläre Calcium Konzentration nachgewiesen werden. Über die Messung der Aktivierung von Effektor-Caspasen konnte zudem ein gesteigerter Zelltod in den APP-überexprimierenden Zellen gemessen werden. Zudem konnte gezeigt werden, dass der pro-apoptotische Transkriptionsfaktor CHOP, nicht aber die klassischen UPR-Zielgene spezifisch hochreguliert wurden. Die APP-modulierte gesteigerte Induktion von Apoptose nach Calcium Freisezung konnte durch Komplexierung der intrazellulären Calcium Ionen und durch Knockdown von CHOP im Vergleich zur Kontrolle gänzlich unterdrückt werden. Ferner bewirkte die Inhibition der Speicher-aktivierten Calcium-Kanälen (SOCC) eine signifikante Unterdrückung der beobachteten erhöhten intrazellulären Calcium Konzentration und der gesteigerten Apoptose in den APP-überexprimierenden PC12 Zellen. In diesem Teil der Arbeit konnte eindeutig gezeigt werden, dass APP in der Lage ist den durch Calcium-Freisetzung-induzierten Zelltod zu potenzieren. Diese Modulation durch APP verläuft in einer UPR-unabhängigen Reaktion über die Aktivierung von SOCC’s, einer erhöhten Aufnahme von extrazellulärem Calcium und durch erhöhte Induktion des pro-apoptotischen Transkriptionsfaktors CHOP. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die sAPPα-vermittelte Neuroprotektion untersucht. Dabei handelt es sich um die N-terminale Ektodomäne von APP, die über die Aktivität der α-Sekretase prozessiert wird und anschließend extrazellulär abgegeben wird. Ziel dieser Versuchsreihe war die neuroprotektive physiologische Funktion von APP im Hinblick auf den Schutz von neuronalen Zellen vor diversen für Morbus Alzheimer relevanten Stress-Stimuli bzw. Apoptose-Stimuli zu untersuchen. Durch die Analyse der Effektor-Caspasen konnte gezeigt werden, dass sAPPα in der Lage ist PC12 Zellen potent vor oxidativem Stress, DNA-Schäden, Hypoxie, proteasomalem Stress und Calcium-Freisetzung zu schützen. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass sAPPα in der Lage ist den pro-apoptotischen Stress-induzierten JNK/Akt-Signalweg zu inhibieren. Eine Beteiligung des anti-apoptotischen PI3K/Akt-Signalwegs bei der sAPPα-vermittelten Protektion konnte über die Inhibition der PI3-Kinase ebenfalls demonstriert werden, die eine Aufhebung der sAPPα-vermittelten Neuroprotektion bewirkte. Diese Daten zeigen neue molekulare Mechanismen auf, die dem sAPPα-vermittelten Schutz vor pathophysiologisch relevanten Stress-Stimuli in neuronalen Zellen zugrunde liegen. Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wurden verschieden Gruppen von pharmakologischen Substanzen im Hinblick auf ihre neuroprotektive Wirkung untersucht und mit ihren Effekten auf den APP-Metabolismus korreliert. Die Untersuchungen ergaben, dass Galantamin, ein schwacher Acetycholinesterase Inhibitor und allosterisch potenzierender Ligand von nikotinischen Acetylcholin-Rezeptoren in der Lage war, naive, und mit noch höherer Effizienz APP-überexprimierende Zelllinien vor dem Stress-induzierten Zelltod zu schützen. Zudem bewirkte Galantamin in APP-überexprimierenden HEK293 Zellen eine rasche Erhöhung der sAPPα Sekretion, so dass hier von einer Rezeptor-vermittelten Modulation des APP Metabolismus ausgegangen werden kann. Omega-3 Fettsäuren wirken sich positiv auf die Membranfluidität von Zellen aus und es konnte bereits gezeigt werden, dass die Bildung des toxischen Aβ Peptids hierdurch vermindert wird. In Analogie zu Galantamin schützte die Omega-3 Fettsäure Docosahexaensäure (DHA) neuronale Zellen vor dem Stress-induzierten Zelltod, wobei der Schutz in APP-überexprimierenden Zellen besonders effizient war. Diese Daten legen nahe, dass die Aktivierung des antiamyloidogenen Wegs der APP-Prozessierung ein viel versprechender Ansatz für die Entwicklung neuer Therapien gegen Morbus Alzheimer sein könnte.

Charakterisierung zellulärer Interaktionspartner des großen Hüllproteins des Hepatitis-B-Virus

Im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit stand das große L-Hüllprotein (L) des Hepatitis B - Virus. L bildet eine ungewöhnliche duale Topologie in der ER-Membran aus, welche auch im reifen Viruspartikel erhalten bleibt. In einem partiellen, posttranslationalen Reifungsprozess wird die sogenannte PräS-Region von der zytosolischen Seite der Membran aus in das ER-Lumen transloziert. Aufgrund seiner dualen Topologie und der damit verbundenen Multifunktionalität übernimmt L eine Schlüsselfunktion im viralen Lebenszyklus. Ein Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag deshalb darin, neue zelluläre Interaktionspartner des L-Hüllproteins zu identifizieren. Ihre Analyse sollte helfen, das Zusammenspiel des Virus mit der Wirtszelle besser zu verstehen. Hierfür wurde das Split - Ubiquitin Hefe - Zwei - Hybrid System eingesetzt, das die Interaktionsanalyse von Membranproteinen und Membran-assoziierten Proteinen ermöglicht. Zwei der neu identifizierten Interaktionspartner, der v-SNARE Bet1 und Sec24A, die Cargo-bindende Untereinheit des CoPII-vermittelten vesikulären Transports, wurden weitergehend im humanen Zellkultursystem untersucht. Sowohl für Bet1 als auch für Sec24A konnte die Interaktion mit dem L-Hüllprotein bestätigt und der Bindungsbereich eingegrenzt werden. Die Depletion des endogenen Bet1 reduzierte die Freisetzung L-haltiger, nicht aber S-haltiger subviraler Partikel (SVP) deutlich. Im Gegensatz zu Bet1 interagierte Sec24A auch mit dem mittleren M- und kleinen S-Hüllprotein von HBV. Die Inhibition des CoPII-vermittelten vesikulären Transportweges durch kombinierte Depletion der vier Sec24 Isoformen blockierte die Freisetzung sowohl L- als auch S-haltiger SVP. Dies bedeutet, dass die HBV - Hüllproteine das ER CoPII-vermittelt verlassen, wobei sie aktiv Kontakt zur Cargo-bindenden Untereinheit Sec24A aufnehmen. Der effiziente Export der Hüllproteine aus dem ER ist für die Virusmorphogenese und somit für den HBV - Lebenszyklus essentiell. rnEin weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit basierte auf der Interaktion des L-Hüllproteins mit dem ER-luminalen Chaperon BiP. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde überprüft, ob BiP, ähnlich wie das zytosolische Chaperon Hsc70, an der Ausbildung der dualen Topologie des L-Hüllproteins beteiligt ist. Hierfür wurde BiP durch die ektopische Expression seiner Ko-Chaperone BAP und ERdj4 in seiner Substrat-bindenen Kapazität manipuliert. ERdj4, ein Mitglied der Hsp40 - Proteinfamilie, stimuliert die ATPase-Aktivität von BiP, was die Substratbindung stabilisiert. Der Nukleotid - Austauschfaktor BAP hingegen vermittelt die Auflösung des BiP - Substrat - Komplexes. Die Auswirkung der veränderten in vivo-Aktivität von BiP auf die posttranslationale PräS-Translokation wurde mit Proteaseschutz - Versuchen untersucht. Die ektopische Expression des positiven als auch des negativen Regulators von BiP resultierte in einer drastischen Reduktion der posttranslationalen PräS-Translokation. Ein vergleichbarer Effekt wurde nach Manipulation des BiP ATPase - Zyklus durch Depletion der zellulären ATP - Konzentration beobachtet. Dies spricht dafür, dass das ER-luminale Chaperon BiP, zusammen mit Hsc70, eine zentrale Rolle in der Ausbildung der dualen Topologie des L-Hüllproteins spielt. rnZwei weitere Proteine, Sec62 und Sec63, die sich für die posttranslationale Translokation in der Hefe als essentiell erwiesen haben, wurden in die Analyse der dualen Topologie des L-Hüllproteins einbezogen. Interessanterweise konnte eine rein luminale Ausrichtung der PräS-Region nach kombinierter Depletion des endogenen Sec62 und Sec63 beobachtet werden. Dies deutet an, dass sowohl Sec62 als auch Sec63 an der Ausbildung der dualen Topologie des L-Hüllproteins beteiligt sind. In Analogie zur Posttranslokation der Hefe könnte Sec62 als Translokon-assoziierter Rezeptor für Substrate der Posttranslokation, und damit der PräS-Region, dienen. Sec63 könnte mit seiner J-Domäne BiP zum Translokon rekrutieren und daraufhin dessen Substrat-bindende Aktivität stimulieren. BiP würde dann, einer molekularen Ratsche gleich, die PräS-Region durch wiederholtes Binden und Freisetzen aktiv in das ER-Lumen hereinziehen, bis eine stabile duale Topologie des L-Hüllproteins ausgebildet ist. Die Bedeutung von Sec62 und Sec63 für den HBV - Lebenszyklus wird dadurch untermauert, dass sowohl die ektopische Expression als auch die Depletion des endogenen Sec63 die Freisetzung L-haltiger SVP deutlich reduziert. rn

Untersuchungen zur Funktion multipler DnaJ-Proteine in dem Cyanobakterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Sowohl in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 als auch in anderen Cyanobakterien konnten multiple DnaJ-Proteine nachgewiesen werden, deren Funktion jedoch noch weitestgehend unverstanden ist. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die Funktionen der multiplen DnaJ-Proteine von Synechocystis sp. charakterisiert. Das DnaJ-Protein, Sll0897 gehört aufgrund seiner Domänenstruktur zu den Typ I-Proteinen, Slr0093 und Sll1933 zu den Typ II-Proteinen und Sll0909, Sll1011, Sll1384 und Sll1666 zu den Typ III DnaJ-Proteinen. Durch Komplementationsstudien des E. coli ΔdnaJ-Stammes OD259 konnte eine Komplementation des Wachstumsdefekts bei höheren Temperaturen durch die Proteine Slr0093 und Sll0897 gezeigt werden. In Synechocystis war eine komplette Disruption von sll1933 nicht möglich, weshalb das Protein Sll1933 unter normalen Wachstumsbedingungen essentiell ist. Doppelte Insertionmutationen waren lediglich bei der Kombination der Gene sll0909 und sll1384 möglich. Untersuchungen des Wachstumsverhaltens der dnaJ-Disruptions-stämme unter Hitze- und Kältestressbedingungen zeigten, dass das Protein Sll0897 eine wichtige Funktion bei der Stressantwort in Synechocystis besitzt und unter Hitzestressbedingungen essentiell ist. Eine vollständige Deletion des Gens sll0897 war Synechocystis sp. bereits unter normalen Wachstumsbedingungen nicht möglich. Bei den für ein Wachstum mindestens notwendigen Domänen des Sll0897 handelt es sich um die charakteristische J-Domäne und die Glycin-Phenylalanin-reiche Domäne. Unter Hitzestressbedingungen ist das Volllängen-Protein Sll0897 für ein Wachstum essentiell. rnNeben den in vivo Wachstumsexperimenten wurde eine Methode zur heterologen Expression der sieben DnaJ-Proteine in E. coli und einer nativen Reinigung von Slr0093, Sll0897, Sll0909 und Sll1666 etabliert. Untersuchungen zur Thermostabilität der gereinigten Proteine zeigten für das Slr0093 und Sll1666 einen reversiblen Prozess, wodurch sie auch nach dem Hitzestress noch als Faltungshelfer fungieren können. Bei den Proteinen Sll0897 und Sll0909 ist der Prozess jedoch nicht reversibel, so dass sie nach Hitzestresseinwirkung neu synthetisiert oder durch Chaperoneinwirkung korrekt gefaltet werden müssen. Die Affinitäts-„Pull-Down“ Analysen lieferten keine klaren Hinweise auf die DnaK-Interaktionspartner der Proteine Slr0093, Sll0897, Sll0909 und Sll1666, weshalb weitere Untersuchungen notwendig sind. Mit Hilfe der Gelfiltrationsanalysen konnten die errechneten molaren Massen der Proteine Slr0093 und Sll1666 bestätigt und beide Proteine in einer monomeren Form nachgewiesen werden. Die DnaJ-Proteine Sll0897 und Sll0909 konnten in zwei oligomeren Zuständen detektiert werden. Analysen der ATPase-Aktivität des DnaK2-Proteins alleine und des DnaK2-Proteins zusammen mit den DnaJ-Proteinen Slr0093, Sll0897, Sll0909 und Sll1666 zeigten eine Steigerung der ATP-Hydrolyserate bei der Interaktion von DnaK und DnaJ, wobei Sll0897 die größte Steigerung der ATPase-Aktivität des DnaK2 induzierte.

Natural compounds Camptothecin and Triptolide: highly specific enzyme inhibitors and tools to dissect transcriptional functions

With this work I elucidated new and unexpected mechanisms of two strong and highly specific transcription inhibitors: Triptolide and Campthotecin. Triptolide (TPL) is a diterpene epoxide derived from the Chinese plant Trypterigium Wilfoordii Hook F. TPL inhibits the ATPase activity of XPB, a subunit of the general transcription factor TFIIH. In this thesis I found that degradation of Rbp1 (the largest subunit of RNA Polymerase II) caused by TPL treatments, is preceded by an hyperphosphorylation event at serine 5 of the carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of Rbp1. This event is concomitant with a block of RNA Polymerase II at promoters of active genes. The enzyme responsible for Ser5 hyperphosphorylation event is CDK7. Notably, CDK7 downregulation rescued both Ser5 hyperphosphorylation and Rbp1 degradation triggered by TPL. Camptothecin (CPT), derived from the plant Camptotheca acuminata, specifically inhibits topoisomerase 1 (Top1). We first found that CPT induced antisense transcription at divergent CpG islands promoter. Interestingly, by immunofluorescence experiments, CPT was found to induce a burst of R loop structures (DNA/RNA hybrids) at nucleoli and mitochondria. We then decided to investigate the role of Top1 in R loop homeostasis through a short interfering RNA approach (RNAi). Using DNA/RNA immunoprecipitation techniques coupled to NGS I found that Top1 depletion induces an increase of R loops at a genome-wide level. We found that such increase occurs on the entire gene body. At a subset of loci R loops resulted particularly stressed after Top1 depletion: some of these genes showed the formation of new R loops structures, whereas other loci showed a reduction of R loops. Interestingly we found that new peaks usually appear at tandem or divergent genes in the entire gene body, while losses of R loop peaks seems to be a feature specific of 3’ end regions of convergent genes.

The biological basis of autism spectrum disorders: evaluation of oxidative stress and erytrocyte membrane alterations

This case-control study involved a total of 29 autistic children (Au) aged 6 to 12 years, and 28 gender and age-matched typically developing children (TD). We evaluated a high number of peripheral oxidative stress parameters, erythrocyte and lymphocyte membrane functional features and membrane lipid composition of erythrocyte. Erythrocyte TBARS, Peroxiredoxin II, Protein Carbonyl Groups and urinary HEL and isoprostane levels were elevated in AU (confirming an imbalance of the redox status of Au); other oxidative stress markers or associated parameters (urinary 8-oxo-dG, plasma Total antioxidant capacity and plasma carbonyl groups, erythrocyte SOD and catalase activities) were unchanged, whilst peroxiredoxin I showed a trend of elevated levels in red blood cells of Au children. A very significant reduction of both erythrocyte and lymphocyte Na+, K+-ATPase activity (NKA), a reduction of erythrocyte membrane fluidity, a reduction of phospatydyl serine exposition on erythrocyte membranes, an alteration in erythrocyte fatty acid membrane profile (increase in MUFA and in ω6/ω3 ratio due to decrease in EPA and DHA) and a reduction of cholesterol content of erythrocyte membrane were found in Au compared to TD, without change in erythrocyte membrane sialic acid content and in lymphocyte membrane fluidity. Some Au clinical features appear to be correlated with these findings; in particular, hyperactivity score appears to be related with some parameters of the lipidomic profile and membrane fluidity, and ADOS and CARS score are inversely related to peroxiredoxin II levels. Oxidative stress and erythrocyte structural and functional alterations may play a role in the pathogenesis of Autism Spectrum Disorders and could be potentially utilized as peripheral biomarkers.