Bioremediation of PAHs - Limitations and soultions

Introduction 1.1 Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the environment Worldwide industrial and agricultural developments have released a large number of natural and synthetic hazardous compounds into the environment due to careless waste disposal, illegal waste dumping and accidental spills. As a result, there are numerous sites in the world that require cleanup of soils and groundwater. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the major groups of these contaminants (Da Silva et al., 2003). PAHs constitute a diverse class of organic compounds consisting of two or more aromatic rings with various structural configurations (Prabhu and Phale, 2003). Being a derivative of benzene, PAHs are thermodynamically stable. In addition, these chemicals tend to adhere to particle surfaces, such as soils, because of their low water solubility and strong hydrophobicity, and this results in greater persistence under natural conditions. This persistence coupled with their potential carcinogenicity makes PAHs problematic environmental contaminants (Cerniglia, 1992; Sutherland, 1992). PAHs are widely found in high concentrations at many industrial sites, particularly those associated with petroleum, gas production and wood preserving industries (Wilson and Jones, 1993). 1.2 Remediation technologies Conventional techniques used for the remediation of soil polluted with organic contaminants include excavation of the contaminated soil and disposal to a landfill or capping - containment - of the contaminated areas of a site. These methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and containment method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants, if possible, or transform them into harmless substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (for example, base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). However, these methods have significant disadvantages, principally their technological complexity, high cost , and the lack of public acceptance. Bioremediation, on the contrast, is a promising option for the complete removal and destruction of contaminants. 1.3 Bioremediation of PAH contaminated soil & groundwater Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade or detoxify hazardous wastes into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide, water and cell biomass Most PAHs are biodegradable unter natural conditions (Da Silva et al., 2003; Meysami and Baheri, 2003) and bioremediation for cleanup of PAH wastes has been extensively studied at both laboratory and commercial levels- It has been implemented at a number of contaminated sites, including the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989, the Mega Borg spill off the Texas coast in 1990 and the Burgan Oil Field, Kuwait in 1994 (Purwaningsih, 2002). Different strategies for PAH bioremediation, such as in situ , ex situ or on site bioremediation were developed in recent years. In situ bioremediation is a technique that is applied to soil and groundwater at the site without removing the contaminated soil or groundwater, based on the provision of optimum conditions for microbiological contaminant breakdown.. Ex situ bioremediation of PAHs, on the other hand, is a technique applied to soil and groundwater which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Hazardous contaminants are converted in controlled bioreactors into harmless compounds in an efficient manner. 1.4 Bioavailability of PAH in the subsurface Frequently, PAH contamination in the environment is occurs as contaminants that are sorbed onto soilparticles rather than in phase (NAPL, non aqueous phase liquids). It is known that the biodegradation rate of most PAHs sorbed onto soil is far lower than rates measured in solution cultures of microorganisms with pure solid pollutants (Alexander and Scow, 1989; Hamaker, 1972). It is generally believed that only that fraction of PAHs dissolved in the solution can be metabolized by microorganisms in soil. The amount of contaminant that can be readily taken up and degraded by microorganisms is defined as bioavailability (Bosma et al., 1997; Maier, 2000). Two phenomena have been suggested to cause the low bioavailability of PAHs in soil (Danielsson, 2000). The first one is strong adsorption of the contaminants to the soil constituents which then leads to very slow release rates of contaminants to the aqueous phase. Sorption is often well correlated with soil organic matter content (Means, 1980) and significantly reduces biodegradation (Manilal and Alexander, 1991). The second phenomenon is slow mass transfer of pollutants, such as pore diffusion in the soil aggregates or diffusion in the organic matter in the soil. The complex set of these physical, chemical and biological processes is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, biodegradation processes are taking place in the soil solution while diffusion processes occur in the narrow pores in and between soil aggregates (Danielsson, 2000). Seemingly contradictory studies can be found in the literature that indicate the rate and final extent of metabolism may be either lower or higher for sorbed PAHs by soil than those for pure PAHs (Van Loosdrecht et al., 1990). These contrasting results demonstrate that the bioavailability of organic contaminants sorbed onto soil is far from being well understood. Besides bioavailability, there are several other factors influencing the rate and extent of biodegradation of PAHs in soil including microbial population characteristics, physical and chemical properties of PAHs and environmental factors (temperature, moisture, pH, degree of contamination). Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing possible rate-limiting processes during bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a contaminated soil-water system (not to scale) (Danielsson, 2000). 1.5 Increasing the bioavailability of PAH in soil Attempts to improve the biodegradation of PAHs in soil by increasing their bioavailability include the use of surfactants , solvents or solubility enhancers.. However, introduction of synthetic surfactant may result in the addition of one more pollutant. (Wang and Brusseau, 1993).A study conducted by Mulder et al. showed that the introduction of hydropropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), a well-known PAH solubility enhancer, significantly increased the solubilization of PAHs although it did not improve the biodegradation rate of PAHs (Mulder et al., 1998), indicating that further research is required in order to develop a feasible and efficient remediation method. Enhancing the extent of PAHs mass transfer from the soil phase to the liquid might prove an efficient and environmentally low-risk alternative way of addressing the problem of slow PAH biodegradation in soil.

Cyclic alternating pattern in sleep and its relationship to creativity

Background/Objectives: Sleep has been shown to enhance creativity, but the reason for this enhancement is not entirely known. There are several different physiological states associated with sleep. In addition to rapid (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, NREM sleep can be broken down into Stages (1-4) that are characterized by the degree of EEG slow wave activity. In addition, during NREM sleep there are transient but cyclic alternating patterns (CAP) of EEG activity and these CAPs can also be divided into three subtypes (A1-A3) according to speed of the EEG waves. Differences in CAP ratios have been previously linked to cognitive performances. The purpose of this study was to learn the relationship CAP activity during sleep and creativity. Methods: The participants were 8 healthy young adults (4 women), who underwent 3 consecutive nights of polysomnographic recording and took the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA) on the 2 and 3rd mornings after the recordings. Results: There were positive correlations between Stage 1 of NREM sleep and some measures of creativity such as fluency (R= .797; p=.029) and flexibility ( R=.43; p=.002), between Stage 4 of Non-REM sleep and originality (R= .779; p=.034) and a global measure of figural creativity (R= .758; p=.040). There was also a negative correlation between REM sleep and originality (R= -.827; p= .042) . During NREM sleep the CAP rate, which in young people is primarily the A1 subtype, also correlated with originality (R= .765; p =.038). Conclusions: NREM sleep is associated with low levels of cortical arousal and low cortical arousal may enhance the ability of people to access to the remote associations that are critical for creative innovations. In addition, A1 CAP activity reflects frontal activity and the frontal lobes are important for divergent thinking, also a critical aspect of creativity.

Ursachen der unterschiedlichen Oligomerisierung von Lichtsammelproteinen

Die verschiedenen Lichtsammelproteine (Lhc-Proteine) höherer Pflanzen unterscheiden sich im Oligomerisierungsverhalten. Im Photosystem II existieren 6 Lhc-Proteine, die entweder die monomeren Lichtsammelkomplexe (LHC) CP24 (Lhcb6), CP26 (Lhcb5) und CP29 (Lhcb4) oder den trimeren LHCII (Lhcb1, Lhcb2 und Lhcb3) bilden. Im Photosystem I sind laut Kristallstruktur vier Lhc-Proteine lokalisiert, die als Heterodimere organisiert vorliegen. Der schwerpunktmäßig untersuchte LHCI-730 setzt sich aus Lhca1 und Lhca4 zusammen, während der LHCI-680 aus Lhca2 und Lhca3 besteht. Das Ziel der Arbeit bestand in der Identifizierung der für das unterschiedliche Oligomerisierungsverhalten verantwortlichen Proteinbereiche und Aminosäuren. Die für diese Arbeit generierten Consensussequenzalignments verschiedener Lhca- und Lhcb-Proteine vieler Arten unterstützen die Folgerungen aus Strukturdaten und anderen Sequenzalignments, dass den LHCs eine gemeinsame Monomerstruktur zu Grunde liegt. Die Helices 1 und 3 weisen weitgehend sehr hohe Sequenzidentitäten auf, während die N- und C-Termini, die zwei Schleifenregionen und die Helix 2 nur schwach konserviert sind. Falls die Bereiche mit hoher Sequenzübereinstimmung für das Zustandekommen ähnlicher monomerer LHC-Strukturen verantwortlich sind, könnten in den schwach konservierten Domänen die Ursachen für das unterschiedliche Oligomerisierungsverhalten lokalisiert sein. Aufgrund dessen wurden die schwach konservierten Domänen des monomerisierenden Lhcb4, des mit dem Lhca1 dimerisierenden Lhca4 und des Trimere bildenden Lhcb1 gegen die entsprechenden Domänen der anderen Proteine ausgetauscht und bezüglich ihres Oligomerisierungsverhaltens untersucht. Im Lhca4 konnten mit der Helix 2 und der stromalen Schleife zwei für eine Heterodimerisierung essentielle Domänen gefunden werden. Im Lhcb1 waren neben dem N-Terminus auch die 2. Helix und die stromale Schleifendomäne unentbehrlich für eine Trimerisierung. Zusätzlich waren Dimerisierung und Trimerisierung bei Austausch der luminalen Schleife beeinträchtigt. Ein geringer Beitrag zur Lhcb1-Trimerisierung konnte auch für den C-Terminus belegt werden. Ein zusätzliches Ziel der Arbeit sollte der Transfer der Oligomerisierungseigenschaften durch umfangreichen Domänentausch von einem auf ein anderes Protein sein. Der Transfer der Fähigkeit zur Dimerbildung durch Substitution gegen essentielle Lhca4-Domänen (50% luminale Schleife, 100% Helix 2 und 100% stromale Schleife) gelang beim Lhcb4, nicht aber beim Lhcb1. Der Transfer der Trimerisierungsfähigkeit auf Lhca4 und Lhcb4 scheiterte. Eine Lhca1-Mutante mit allen für eine Dimerisierung essentiellen Lhca4-Domänen, die durch Interaktion einzelner Moleküle untereinander multimere LHCs bilden sollte, war bereits in ihrer Monomerbildung beeinträchtigt. Eine Übertragung der Oligomerisierungsfähigkeit auf andere Proteine durch massiven Domänentransfer gestaltete sich somit schwierig, da vermutlich im mutierten Protein immer noch ursprüngliche Tertiärstrukturanteile enthalten waren, die nicht mit den transferierten Proteinbestandteilen kompatibel sind. Bei zukünftigen Experimenten zur Klärung der Transferierbarkeit der Oligomerisierungseigenschaft sollten deswegen neben dem unberücksichtigten 1. Teil der luminalen Schleife auch wenig konservierte Aminosäuren in der 1. und 3. Helix Beachtung finden. Ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die LHCI-730-Dimerisierung im Detail zu untersuchen. Mutationsanalysen bestätigten den von früheren Untersuchungen bekannten Einfluss des Isoleucins 103 und Histidins 99. Letzteres geht möglicherweise durch sein gebundenes Chlorophyll eine Interaktion mit dem Lhca1 ein. Das Phenylalanin 95 stellte sich ebenfalls als ein wichtiger Interaktionspartner heraus und könnte in Wechselwirkung mit einem zwischen Lhca1 und Lhca4 lokalisierten Phosphatidylglycerin treten. Das ebenfalls an der Dimerbildung beteiligte Serin 88 des Lhca4 könnte auf Grund der räumlichen Nähe bei Modellierungen direkt mit dem am C-Terminus des Lhca1 lokalisierten Glycin 190 interagieren. Darüber hinaus wurde ein in der luminalen Lhca4-Schleife lokalisiertes Phenylalanin 84 als Interaktionspartner des Tryptophans 185 im C-Terminus von Lhca1 identifiziert. Der simultane Austausch des Isoleucins 109 und Lysins 110 in der stromalen Schleife des Lhca4, konnte deren Einfluss auf die Dimerisierung belegen. Nachdem bislang an der Dimerbildung beteiligte Aminosäuren am N- und C-Terminus des Lhca1 und Lhca4 identifiziert werden konnten, wurden in dieser Arbeit viele an einer Dimerbildung beteiligten Proteinbereiche und Aminosäuren in der Helix 2 und den Schleifenregionen des Lhca4 identifiziert. Um alle an der Lhca1-Lhca4-Interaktion beteiligten Aminosäuren aufzuklären, müssten durch Mutationsanalysen die in der stromalen Lhca4-Schleife vermuteten Interaktionspartner des für die Dimerisierung wichtigen Tryptophans 4 am N-Terminus von Lhca1 identifiziert, und die in der Helix 3 des Lhca1 vermuteten Interaktionspartner der Helix 2 des Lhca4 ermittelt werden.

Kinematic models of interseismic deformation from inversion of GPS and InSAR measurements to estimate fault parameters and coupling degree

We have used kinematic models in two Italian regions to reproduce surface interseismic velocities obtained from InSAR and GPS measurements. We have considered a Block modeling, BM, approach to evaluate which fault system is actively accommodating the occurring deformation in both considered areas. We have performed a study for the Umbria-Marche Apennines, obtaining that the tectonic extension observed by GPS measurements is explained by the active contribution of at least two fault systems, one of which is the Alto Tiberina fault, ATF. We have estimated also the interseismic coupling distribution for the ATF using a 3D surface and the result shows an interesting correlation between the microseismicity and the uncoupled fault portions. The second area analyzed concerns the Gargano promontory for which we have used jointly the available InSAR and GPS velocities. Firstly we have attached the two datasets to the same terrestrial reference frame and then using a simple dislocation approach, we have estimated the best fault parameters reproducing the available data, providing a solution corresponding to the Mattinata fault. Subsequently we have considered within a BM analysis both GPS and InSAR datasets in order to evaluate if the Mattinata fault may accommodate the deformation occurring in the central Adriatic due to the relative motion between the North-Adriatic and South-Adriatic plates. We obtain that the deformation occurring in that region should be accommodated by more that one fault system, that is however difficult to detect since the poor coverage of geodetic measurement offshore of the Gargano promontory. Finally we have performed also the estimate of the interseismic coupling distribution for the Mattinata fault, obtaining a shallow coupling pattern. Both of coupling distributions found using the BM approach have been tested by means of resolution checkerboard tests and they demonstrate that the coupling patterns depend on the geodetic data positions.

Trauma mechanisms, patterns of injury, and outcomes in a retrospective study of 71 burns from civil gas explosions

Although explosion injuries caused by terror attacks or in war are evaluated in many studies, limited information about civil explosion injuries can be found in the literature.

Danger assessment of a spring-gun device (muzzleloader) loaded only with black powder

We report a case involving a spring-gun device (muzzleloader) loaded solely with gunpowder, installed next to shoes to prevent the neighbors' puppy from removing them. The booby trap was triggered by the 15-year-old dog-owners son when he tried to put the shoes out of the reach of the puppy. The boy suffered second degree superficial burns located mainly at the dorsal side of the right hand and fingers. To estimate the danger of the used weapon, several tests were undertaken on soap blocks from different distances and with different loads of black powder. The particle density per mm and the depth of black powder tattooing in the soap was compared with the boy's injuries, and found conclusive with the gun-owners statement regarding the loading of the weapon. Furthermore, our experiments indicated that the gunpowder load involved was not able to inflict permanent damage, not even to the eyes, at the here estimated firing distance.

[Evaluation of a preschool program to promote phonological awareness and letter-sound correspondence--long-term effects in the prevention of dyslexia at the end of the 3rd and 4th grades]

The present study evaluates the long-term effects of a preschool training in phonological awareness and letter- sound correspondence.

Influence of curing rate on softening in ethanol, degree of conversion, and wear of resin composite

PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of curing rate on softening in ethanol, degree of conversion, and wear of resin composites. METHOD: With a given energy density and for each of two different light-curing units (QTH or LED), the curing rate was reduced by modulating the curing mode. Thus, the irradiation of resin composite specimens (Filtek Z250, Tetric Ceram, Esthet-X) was performed in a continuous curing mode and in a pulse-delay curing mode. Wallace hardness was used to determine the softening of resin composite after storage in ethanol. Degree of conversion was determined by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Wear was assessed by a three-body test. Data were submitted to Levene's test, one and three-way ANOVA, and Tukey HSD test (alpha = 0.05). Results: Immersion in ethanol, curing mode, and material all had significant effects on Wallace hardness. After ethanol storage, resin composites exposed to the pulse-delay curing mode were softer than resin composites exposed to continuous cure (P< 0.0001). Tetric Ceram was the softest material followed by Esthet-X and Filtek Z250 (P< 0.001). Only the restorative material had a significant effect on degree of conversion (P< 0.001): Esthet-X had the lowest degree of conversion followed by Filtek Z250 and Tetric Ceram. Curing mode (P= 0.007) and material (P< 0.001) had significant effect on wear. Higher wear resulted from the pulse-delay curing mode when compared to continuous curing, and Filtek Z250 showed the lowest wear followed by Esthet-X and Tetric Ceram.

Numerical Computation of a Certain Dirichlet Series Attached to Siegel Modular Forms of Degree Two

The Rankin convolution type Dirichlet series D-F,D-G(s) of Siegel modular forms F and G of degree two, which was introduced by Kohnen and the second author, is computed numerically for various F and G. In particular, we prove that the series D-F,D-G(s), which shares the same functional equation and analytic behavior with the spinor L-functions of eigenforms of the same weight are not linear combinations of those. In order to conduct these experiments a numerical method to compute the Petersson scalar products of Jacobi Forms is developed and discussed in detail.