The place of (explicit) grammar within the methods and approaches of foreign language teaching: in the north, in the centre or on the margins?

This article analyzes the role that has been attributed to grammar throughout the history of foreign language teaching, with special emphasis on methods and approaches of the twentieth century. In order to support our argument, we discuss the notion of grammar by proposing a conceptual continuum that includes the main meanings of the term which are relevant to our research. We address as well the issue of "pedagogical grammar" and consider the position of grammar in the different approaches of the "era of the methods" and the current "post-method condition" in the field of language teaching and learning. The findings presented at the end of the text consist of recognizing the central role that grammar has played throughout the history of the methods and approaches, where grammar has always been present by the definition of the contents' progression. The rationale that we propose for this is the recognition of the fact that the dissociation between what is said and how it is said can not be more than theoretical and, thus, artificial.

A new Pennsylvanian Oriocrassatellinae from Brazil and the distribution of the genus Oriocrassatella in space and time

Oriocrassatella Etheridge Jr., 1907 is a long range crassatellid bivalve genus well recognized in shallow waters of epeiric seas throughout the upper part of Paleozoic. The first occurrences of this genus are recorded in the sedimentary successions of the Gondwana, both in Australia and South America. However, the geographic and age distribution of Oriocrassatella in Late Mississippian deposits of Australia and Argentina may indicate an earliest Visean or even a pre-Visean origin for the genus. Following its origin in Early Carboniferous a complex paleobiogeographic history from Southern to Northern Hemisphere took place in the Permian. During its initial dispersal phase from Late Carboniferous to the Early Permian the genus thrived in cold water environments associated to the Late Paleozoic Gondwana glaciation. Shallow-water bottoms of the warm waters of the central Gondwana fringe and Laurussia were colonized by Oriocrassatella only during Early Permian times when the genus became cosmopolitan. A new species of this genus is described herein, Oriocrassatella piauiensis n. sp., recorded from the Piaui Formation, Pennsylvanian of the Parnaiba Basin. This new species may represent an early adaptation to warm waters. However, based on available data, species of this genus seem to have adapted definitely to warm water environments probably related the Late Pennsylvanian interglacial phases. In these phases, climatic barrier were interrupted allowing the faunal interchange and larval dispersion following a South to North migration route through the eastern margins of Gondwana and the eastern Paleotethys.

Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm Based on Reinforcement Learning to Optimization of Broad-Band Reflector Antennas Satellite

This paper aims to provide an improved NSGA-II (Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-version II) which incorporates a parameter-free self-tuning approach by reinforcement learning technique, called Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm Based on Reinforcement Learning (NSGA-RL). The proposed method is particularly compared with the classical NSGA-II when applied to a satellite coverage problem. Furthermore, not only the optimization results are compared with results obtained by other multiobjective optimization methods, but also guarantee the advantage of no time-spending and complex parameter tuning.

Bias and learning in temporal binding: intervals between actions and outcomes are compressed by prior bias

It has consistently been shown that agents judge the intervals between their actions and outcomes as compressed in time, an effect named intentional binding. In the present work, we investigated whether this effect is result of prior bias volunteers have about the timing of the consequences of their actions, or if it is due to learning that occurs during the experimental session. Volunteers made temporal estimates of the interval between their action and target onset (Action conditions), or between two events (No-Action conditions). Our results show that temporal estimates become shorter throughout each experimental block in both conditions. Moreover, we found that observers judged intervals between action and outcomes as shorter even in very early trials of each block. To quantify the decrease of temporal judgments in experimental blocks, exponential functions were fitted to participants’ temporal judgments. The fitted parameters suggest that observers had different prior biases as to intervals between events in which action was involved. These findings suggest that prior bias might play a more important role in this effect than calibration-type learning processes.

Effects of environmental complexity on neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus

Introduction. Postnatal neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, can be modulated by numerous determinants, such as hormones, transmitters and stress. Among the factors positively interfering with neurogenesis, the complexity of the environment appears to play a particularly striking role. Adult mice reared in an enriched environment produce more neurons and exhibit better performance in hippocampus-specific learning tasks. While the effects of complex environments on hippocampal neurogenesis are well documented, there is a lack of information on the effects of living under socio-sensory deprivation conditions. Due to the immaturity of rats and mice at birth, studies dealing with the effects of environmental enrichment on hippocampal neurogenesis were carried out in adult animals, i.e. during a period of relatively low rate of neurogenesis. The impact of environment is likely to be more dramatic during the first postnatal weeks, because at this time granule cell production is remarkably higher than at later phases of development. The aim of the present research was to clarify whether and to what extent isolated or enriched rearing conditions affect hippocampal neurogenesis during the early postnatal period, a time window characterized by a high rate of precursor proliferation and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these effects. The experimental model chosen for this research was the guinea pig, a precocious rodent, which, at 4-5 days of age can be independent from maternal care. Experimental design. Animals were assigned to a standard (control), an isolated, or an enriched environment a few days after birth (P5-P6). On P14-P17 animals received one daily bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) injection, to label dividing cells, and were sacrificed either on P18, to evaluate cell proliferation or on P45, to evaluate cell survival and differentiation. Methods. Brain sections were processed for BrdU immunhistochemistry, to quantify the new born and surviving cells. The phenotype of the surviving cells was examined by means of confocal microscopy and immunofluorescent double-labeling for BrdU and either a marker of neurons (NeuN) or a marker of astrocytes (GFAP). Apoptotic cell death was examined with the TUNEL method. Serial sections were processed for immunohistochemistry for i) vimentin, a marker of radial glial cells, ii) BDNF (brain-derived neurotrofic factor), a neurotrophin involved in neuron proliferation/survival, iii) PSA-NCAM (the polysialylated form of the neural cell adhesion molecule), a molecule associated with neuronal migration. Total granule cell number in the dentate gyrus was evaluated by stereological methods, in Nissl-stained sections. Results. Effects of isolation. In P18 isolated animals we found a reduced cell proliferation (-35%) compared to controls and a lower expression of BDNF. Though in absolute terms P45 isolated animals had less surviving cells than controls, they showed no differences in survival rate and phenotype percent distribution compared to controls. Evaluation of the absolute number of surviving cells of each phenotype showed that isolated animals had a reduced number of cells with neuronal phenotype than controls. Looking at the location of the new neurons, we found that while in control animals 76% of them had migrated to the granule cell layer, in isolated animals only 55% of the new neurons had reached this layer. Examination of radial glia cells of P18 and P45 animals by vimentin immunohistochemistry showed that in isolated animals radial glia cells were reduced in density and had less and shorter processes. Granule cell count revealed that isolated animals had less granule cells than controls (-32% at P18 and -42% at P45). Effects of enrichment. In P18 enriched animals there was an increase in cell proliferation (+26%) compared to controls and a higher expression of BDNF. Though in both groups there was a decline in the number of BrdU-positive cells by P45, enriched animals had more surviving cells (+63) and a higher survival rate than controls. No differences were found between control and enriched animals in phenotype percent distribution. Evaluation of the absolute number of cells of each phenotype showed that enriched animals had a larger number of cells of each phenotype than controls. Looking at the location of cells of each phenotype we found that enriched animals had more new neurons in the granule cell layer and more astrocytes and cells with undetermined phenotype in the hilus. Enriched animals had a higher expression of PSA-NCAM in the granule cell layer and hilus Vimentin immunohistochemistry showed that in enriched animals radial glia cells were more numerous and had more processes.. Granule cell count revealed that enriched animals had more granule cells than controls (+37% at P18 and +31% at P45). Discussion. Results show that isolation rearing reduces hippocampal cell proliferation but does not affect cell survival, while enriched rearing increases both cell proliferation and cell survival. Changes in the expression of BDNF are likely to contribute to he effects of environment on precursor cell proliferation. The reduction and increase in final number of granule neurons in isolated and enriched animals, respectively, are attributable to the effects of environment on cell proliferation and survival and not to changes in the differentiation program. As radial glia cells play a pivotal role in neuron guidance to the granule cell layer, the reduced number of radial glia cells in isolated animals and the increased number in enriched animals suggests that the size of radial glia population may change dynamically, in order to match changes in neuron production. The high PSA-NCAM expression in enriched animals may concur to favor the survival of the new neurons by facilitating their migration to the granule cell layer. Conclusions. By using a precocious rodent we could demonstrate that isolated/enriched rearing conditions, at a time window during which intense granule cell proliferation takes place, lead to a notable decrease/increase of total granule cell number. The time-course and magnitude of postnatal granule cell production in guinea pigs are more similar to the human and non-human primate condition than in rats and mice. Translation of current data to humans would imply that exposure of children to environments poor/rich of stimuli may have a notably large impact on dentate neurogenesis and, very likely, on hippocampus dependent memory functions.

Il passato nell’epoca della sua (ri)producibilità digitale. Torino 1943 - 45. Metodologia della ricerca con tecnologie informatiche. Sistema storico-territoriale di informazione multimediale

Se il lavoro dello storico è capire il passato come è stato compreso dalla gente che lo ha vissuto, allora forse non è azzardato pensare che sia anche necessario comunicare i risultati delle ricerche con strumenti propri che appartengono a un'epoca e che influenzano la mentalità di chi in quell'epoca vive. Emergenti tecnologie, specialmente nell’area della multimedialità come la realtà virtuale, permettono agli storici di comunicare l’esperienza del passato in più sensi. In che modo la storia collabora con le tecnologie informatiche soffermandosi sulla possibilità di fare ricostruzioni storiche virtuali, con relativi esempi e recensioni? Quello che maggiormente preoccupa gli storici è se una ricostruzione di un fatto passato vissuto attraverso la sua ricreazione in pixels sia un metodo di conoscenza della storia che possa essere considerato valido. Ovvero l'emozione che la navigazione in una realtà 3D può suscitare, è un mezzo in grado di trasmettere conoscenza? O forse l'idea che abbiamo del passato e del suo studio viene sottilmente cambiato nel momento in cui lo si divulga attraverso la grafica 3D? Da tempo però la disciplina ha cominciato a fare i conti con questa situazione, costretta soprattutto dall'invasività di questo tipo di media, dalla spettacolarizzazione del passato e da una divulgazione del passato parziale e antiscientifica. In un mondo post letterario bisogna cominciare a pensare che la cultura visuale nella quale siamo immersi sta cambiando il nostro rapporto con il passato: non per questo le conoscenze maturate fino ad oggi sono false, ma è necessario riconoscere che esiste più di una verità storica, a volte scritta a volte visuale. Il computer è diventato una piattaforma onnipresente per la rappresentazione e diffusione dell’informazione. I metodi di interazione e rappresentazione stanno evolvendo di continuo. Ed è su questi due binari che è si muove l’offerta delle tecnologie informatiche al servizio della storia. Lo scopo di questa tesi è proprio quello di esplorare, attraverso l’utilizzo e la sperimentazione di diversi strumenti e tecnologie informatiche, come si può raccontare efficacemente il passato attraverso oggetti tridimensionali e gli ambienti virtuali, e come, nel loro essere elementi caratterizzanti di comunicazione, in che modo possono collaborare, in questo caso particolare, con la disciplina storica. La presente ricerca ricostruisce alcune linee di storia delle principali fabbriche attive a Torino durante la seconda guerra mondiale, ricordando stretta relazione che esiste tra strutture ed individui e in questa città in particolare tra fabbrica e movimento operaio, è inevitabile addentrarsi nelle vicende del movimento operaio torinese che nel periodo della lotta di Liberazione in città fu un soggetto politico e sociale di primo rilievo. Nella città, intesa come entità biologica coinvolta nella guerra, la fabbrica (o le fabbriche) diventa il nucleo concettuale attraverso il quale leggere la città: sono le fabbriche gli obiettivi principali dei bombardamenti ed è nelle fabbriche che si combatte una guerra di liberazione tra classe operaia e autorità, di fabbrica e cittadine. La fabbrica diventa il luogo di "usurpazione del potere" di cui parla Weber, il palcoscenico in cui si tengono i diversi episodi della guerra: scioperi, deportazioni, occupazioni .... Il modello della città qui rappresentata non è una semplice visualizzazione ma un sistema informativo dove la realtà modellata è rappresentata da oggetti, che fanno da teatro allo svolgimento di avvenimenti con una precisa collocazione cronologica, al cui interno è possibile effettuare operazioni di selezione di render statici (immagini), di filmati precalcolati (animazioni) e di scenari navigabili interattivamente oltre ad attività di ricerca di fonti bibliografiche e commenti di studiosi segnatamente legati all'evento in oggetto. Obiettivo di questo lavoro è far interagire, attraverso diversi progetti, le discipline storiche e l’informatica, nelle diverse opportunità tecnologiche che questa presenta. Le possibilità di ricostruzione offerte dal 3D vengono così messe a servizio della ricerca, offrendo una visione integrale in grado di avvicinarci alla realtà dell’epoca presa in considerazione e convogliando in un’unica piattaforma espositiva tutti i risultati. Divulgazione Progetto Mappa Informativa Multimediale Torino 1945 Sul piano pratico il progetto prevede una interfaccia navigabile (tecnologia Flash) che rappresenti la pianta della città dell’epoca, attraverso la quale sia possibile avere una visione dei luoghi e dei tempi in cui la Liberazione prese forma, sia a livello concettuale, sia a livello pratico. Questo intreccio di coordinate nello spazio e nel tempo non solo migliora la comprensione dei fenomeni, ma crea un maggiore interesse sull’argomento attraverso l’utilizzo di strumenti divulgativi di grande efficacia (e appeal) senza perdere di vista la necessità di valicare le tesi storiche proponendosi come piattaforma didattica. Un tale contesto richiede uno studio approfondito degli eventi storici al fine di ricostruire con chiarezza una mappa della città che sia precisa sia topograficamente sia a livello di navigazione multimediale. La preparazione della cartina deve seguire gli standard del momento, perciò le soluzioni informatiche utilizzate sono quelle fornite da Adobe Illustrator per la realizzazione della topografia, e da Macromedia Flash per la creazione di un’interfaccia di navigazione. La base dei dati descrittivi è ovviamente consultabile essendo contenuta nel supporto media e totalmente annotata nella bibliografia. È il continuo evolvere delle tecnologie d'informazione e la massiccia diffusione dell’uso dei computer che ci porta a un cambiamento sostanziale nello studio e nell’apprendimento storico; le strutture accademiche e gli operatori economici hanno fatto propria la richiesta che giunge dall'utenza (insegnanti, studenti, operatori dei Beni Culturali) di una maggiore diffusione della conoscenza storica attraverso la sua rappresentazione informatizzata. Sul fronte didattico la ricostruzione di una realtà storica attraverso strumenti informatici consente anche ai non-storici di toccare con mano quelle che sono le problematiche della ricerca quali fonti mancanti, buchi della cronologia e valutazione della veridicità dei fatti attraverso prove. Le tecnologie informatiche permettono una visione completa, unitaria ed esauriente del passato, convogliando tutte le informazioni su un'unica piattaforma, permettendo anche a chi non è specializzato di comprendere immediatamente di cosa si parla. Il miglior libro di storia, per sua natura, non può farlo in quanto divide e organizza le notizie in modo diverso. In questo modo agli studenti viene data l'opportunità di apprendere tramite una rappresentazione diversa rispetto a quelle a cui sono abituati. La premessa centrale del progetto è che i risultati nell'apprendimento degli studenti possono essere migliorati se un concetto o un contenuto viene comunicato attraverso più canali di espressione, nel nostro caso attraverso un testo, immagini e un oggetto multimediale. Didattica La Conceria Fiorio è uno dei luoghi-simbolo della Resistenza torinese. Il progetto è una ricostruzione in realtà virtuale della Conceria Fiorio di Torino. La ricostruzione serve a arricchire la cultura storica sia a chi la produce, attraverso una ricerca accurata delle fonti, sia a chi può poi usufruirne, soprattutto i giovani, che, attratti dall’aspetto ludico della ricostruzione, apprendono con più facilità. La costruzione di un manufatto in 3D fornisce agli studenti le basi per riconoscere ed esprimere la giusta relazione fra il modello e l’oggetto storico. Le fasi di lavoro attraverso cui si è giunti alla ricostruzione in 3D della Conceria: . una ricerca storica approfondita, basata sulle fonti, che possono essere documenti degli archivi o scavi archeologici, fonti iconografiche, cartografiche, ecc.; . La modellazione degli edifici sulla base delle ricerche storiche, per fornire la struttura geometrica poligonale che permetta la navigazione tridimensionale; . La realizzazione, attraverso gli strumenti della computer graphic della navigazione in 3D. Unreal Technology è il nome dato al motore grafico utilizzato in numerosi videogiochi commerciali. Una delle caratteristiche fondamentali di tale prodotto è quella di avere uno strumento chiamato Unreal editor con cui è possibile costruire mondi virtuali, e che è quello utilizzato per questo progetto. UnrealEd (Ued) è il software per creare livelli per Unreal e i giochi basati sul motore di Unreal. E’ stata utilizzata la versione gratuita dell’editor. Il risultato finale del progetto è un ambiente virtuale navigabile raffigurante una ricostruzione accurata della Conceria Fiorio ai tempi della Resistenza. L’utente può visitare l’edificio e visualizzare informazioni specifiche su alcuni punti di interesse. La navigazione viene effettuata in prima persona, un processo di “spettacolarizzazione” degli ambienti visitati attraverso un arredamento consono permette all'utente una maggiore immersività rendendo l’ambiente più credibile e immediatamente codificabile. L’architettura Unreal Technology ha permesso di ottenere un buon risultato in un tempo brevissimo, senza che fossero necessari interventi di programmazione. Questo motore è, quindi, particolarmente adatto alla realizzazione rapida di prototipi di una discreta qualità, La presenza di un certo numero di bug lo rende, però, in parte inaffidabile. Utilizzare un editor da videogame per questa ricostruzione auspica la possibilità di un suo impiego nella didattica, quello che le simulazioni in 3D permettono nel caso specifico è di permettere agli studenti di sperimentare il lavoro della ricostruzione storica, con tutti i problemi che lo storico deve affrontare nel ricreare il passato. Questo lavoro vuole essere per gli storici una esperienza nella direzione della creazione di un repertorio espressivo più ampio, che includa gli ambienti tridimensionali. Il rischio di impiegare del tempo per imparare come funziona questa tecnologia per generare spazi virtuali rende scettici quanti si impegnano nell'insegnamento, ma le esperienze di progetti sviluppati, soprattutto all’estero, servono a capire che sono un buon investimento. Il fatto che una software house, che crea un videogame di grande successo di pubblico, includa nel suo prodotto, una serie di strumenti che consentano all'utente la creazione di mondi propri in cui giocare, è sintomatico che l'alfabetizzazione informatica degli utenti medi sta crescendo sempre più rapidamente e che l'utilizzo di un editor come Unreal Engine sarà in futuro una attività alla portata di un pubblico sempre più vasto. Questo ci mette nelle condizioni di progettare moduli di insegnamento più immersivi, in cui l'esperienza della ricerca e della ricostruzione del passato si intreccino con lo studio più tradizionale degli avvenimenti di una certa epoca. I mondi virtuali interattivi vengono spesso definiti come la forma culturale chiave del XXI secolo, come il cinema lo è stato per il XX. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è stato quello di suggerire che vi sono grosse opportunità per gli storici impiegando gli oggetti e le ambientazioni in 3D, e che essi devono coglierle. Si consideri il fatto che l’estetica abbia un effetto sull’epistemologia. O almeno sulla forma che i risultati delle ricerche storiche assumono nel momento in cui devono essere diffuse. Un’analisi storica fatta in maniera superficiale o con presupposti errati può comunque essere diffusa e avere credito in numerosi ambienti se diffusa con mezzi accattivanti e moderni. Ecco perchè non conviene seppellire un buon lavoro in qualche biblioteca, in attesa che qualcuno lo scopra. Ecco perchè gli storici non devono ignorare il 3D. La nostra capacità, come studiosi e studenti, di percepire idee ed orientamenti importanti dipende spesso dai metodi che impieghiamo per rappresentare i dati e l’evidenza. Perché gli storici possano ottenere il beneficio che il 3D porta con sè, tuttavia, devono sviluppare un’agenda di ricerca volta ad accertarsi che il 3D sostenga i loro obiettivi di ricercatori e insegnanti. Una ricostruzione storica può essere molto utile dal punto di vista educativo non sono da chi la visita ma, anche da chi la realizza. La fase di ricerca necessaria per la ricostruzione non può fare altro che aumentare il background culturale dello sviluppatore. Conclusioni La cosa più importante è stata la possibilità di fare esperienze nell’uso di mezzi di comunicazione di questo genere per raccontare e far conoscere il passato. Rovesciando il paradigma conoscitivo che avevo appreso negli studi umanistici, ho cercato di desumere quelle che potremo chiamare “leggi universali” dai dati oggettivi emersi da questi esperimenti. Da punto di vista epistemologico l’informatica, con la sua capacità di gestire masse impressionanti di dati, dà agli studiosi la possibilità di formulare delle ipotesi e poi accertarle o smentirle tramite ricostruzioni e simulazioni. Il mio lavoro è andato in questa direzione, cercando conoscere e usare strumenti attuali che nel futuro avranno sempre maggiore presenza nella comunicazione (anche scientifica) e che sono i mezzi di comunicazione d’eccellenza per determinate fasce d’età (adolescenti). Volendo spingere all’estremo i termini possiamo dire che la sfida che oggi la cultura visuale pone ai metodi tradizionali del fare storia è la stessa che Erodoto e Tucidide contrapposero ai narratori di miti e leggende. Prima di Erodoto esisteva il mito, che era un mezzo perfettamente adeguato per raccontare e dare significato al passato di una tribù o di una città. In un mondo post letterario la nostra conoscenza del passato sta sottilmente mutando nel momento in cui lo vediamo rappresentato da pixel o quando le informazioni scaturiscono non da sole, ma grazie all’interattività con il mezzo. La nostra capacità come studiosi e studenti di percepire idee ed orientamenti importanti dipende spesso dai metodi che impieghiamo per rappresentare i dati e l’evidenza. Perché gli storici possano ottenere il beneficio sottinteso al 3D, tuttavia, devono sviluppare un’agenda di ricerca volta ad accertarsi che il 3D sostenga i loro obiettivi di ricercatori e insegnanti. Le esperienze raccolte nelle pagine precedenti ci portano a pensare che in un futuro non troppo lontano uno strumento come il computer sarà l’unico mezzo attraverso cui trasmettere conoscenze, e dal punto di vista didattico la sua interattività consente coinvolgimento negli studenti come nessun altro mezzo di comunicazione moderno.

La costruzione razionale della casa. Scritti e progetti di Giuseppe Pagano

The rational construction of the house. The writings and projects of Giuseppe Pagano Description, themes and research objectives The research aims at analysing the architecture of Giuseppe Pagano, which focuses on the theme of dwelling, through the reading of 3 of his house projects. On the one hand, these projects represent “minor” works not thoroughly known by Pagano’s contemporary critics; on the other they emphasise a particular methodological approach, which serves the author to explore a theme closely linked to his theoretical thought. The house project is a key to Pagano’s research, given its ties to the socio-cultural and political conditions in which the architect was working, so that it becomes a mirror of one of his specific and theoretical path, always in a state of becoming. Pagano understands architecture as a “servant of the human being”, subject to a “utilitarian slavery” since it is a clear, essential and “modest” answer to specific human needs, free from aprioristic aesthetic and formal choices. It is a rational architecture in sensu stricto; it constitutes a perfect synthesis between cause and effect and between function and form. The house needs to accommodate these principles because it is closely intertwined with human needs and intimately linked to a specific place, climatic conditions and technical and economical possibilities. Besides, differently from his public and common masterpieces such as the Palazzo Gualino, the Istituto di Fisica and the Università Commerciale Bocconi, the house projects are representative of a precise project will, which is expressed in a more authentic way, partially freed from political influences and dogmatic preoccupations and, therefore, far from the attempt to research a specific expressive language. I believe that the house project better represents that “ingenuity”, freshness and “sincerity” that Pagano identifies with the minor architecture, thereby revealing a more authentic expression of his understanding of a project. Therefore, the thesis, by tracing the theoretical research of Pagano through the analysis of some of his designed and built works, attempts to identify a specific methodological approach to Pagano’s project, which, developed through time, achieves a certain clarity in the 1930s. In fact, this methodological approach becomes more evident in his last projects, mainly regarding the house and the urban space. These reflect the attempt to respond to the new social needs and, at the same time, they also are an expression of a freer idea of built architecture, closely linked with the place and with the human being who dwells it. The three chosen projects (Villa Colli, La Casa a struttura d’acciaio and Villa Caraccio) make Pagano facing different places, different customers and different economic and technical conditions, which, given the author’s biography, correspond to important historical and political conditions. This is the reason why the projects become apparently distant works, both linguistically and conceptually, to the point that one can define them as ”eclectic”. However, I argue that this eclecticism is actually an added value to the architectural work of Pagano, steaming from the use of a method which, having as a basis the postulate of a rational architecture as essence and logic of building, finds specific variations depending on the multiple variables to be addressed by the project. This is the methodological heritage that Pagano learns from the tradition, especially that of the rural residential architecture, defined by Pagano as a “dictionary of the building logic of man”, as an “a-stylistic background”. For Pagano this traditional architecture is a clear expression of the relationships between a theme and its development, an architectural “fact” that is resolved with purely technical and utilitarian aims and with a spontaneous development far from any aprioristic theoretical principle. Architecture, therefore, cannot be an invention for Pagano and the personal contribution of each architect has to consider his/her close relationship with the specific historical context, place and new building methods. These are basic principles in the methodological approach that drives a great deal of his research and that also permits his thought to be modern. I argue that both ongoing and new collaborations with younger protagonists of the culture and architecture of the period are significant for the development of his methodology. These encounters represent the will to spread his own understanding of the “new architecture” as well as a way of self-renewal by confronting the self with new themes and realities and by learning from his collaborators. Thesis’ outline The thesis is divided in two principal parts, each articulated in four chapters attempting to offer a new reading of the theory and work of Pagano by emphasising the central themes of the research. The first chapter is an introduction to the thesis and to the theme of the rational house, as understood and developed in its typological and technical aspects by Pagano and by other protagonists of the Italian rationalism of the 1930s. Here the attention is on two different aspects defining, according to Pagano, the house project: on the one hand, the typological renewal, aimed at defining a “standard form” as a clear and essential answer to certain needs and variables of the project leading to different formal expressions. On the other, it focuses on the building, understood as a technique to “produce” architecture, where new technologies and new materials are not merely tools but also essential elements of the architectural work. In this way the villa becomes different from the theme of the common house or from that of the minimalist house, by using rules in the choice of material and in the techniques that are every time different depending on the theme under exploration and on the contingency of place. It is also visible the rigorous rationalism that distinguishes the author's appropriation of certain themes of rural architecture. The pages of “Casabella” and the events of the contemporary Triennali form the preliminary material for the writing of this chapter given that they are primary sources to individuate projects and writings produced by Pagano and contemporary architects on this theme. These writings and projects, when compared, reconstruct the evolution of the idea of the rational house and, specifically, of the personal research of Pagano. The second part regards the reading of three of Pagano’s projects of houses as a built verification of his theories. This section constitutes the central part of the thesis since it is aimed at detecting a specific methodological approach showing a theoretical and ideological evolution expressed in the vast edited literature. The three projects that have been chosen explore the theme of the house, looking at various research themes that the author proposes and that find continuity in the affirmation of a specific rationalism, focussed on concepts such as essentiality, utility, functionality and building honesty. These concepts guide the thought and the activities of Pagano, also reflecting a social and cultural period. The projects span from the theme of the villa moderna, Villa Colli, which, inspired by the architecture of North Europe, anticipates a specific rationalism of Pagano based on rigour, simplicity and essentiality, to the theme of the common house, Casa a struttura d’acciaio, la casa del domani, which ponders on the definition of new living spaces and, moreover, on new concepts of standardisation, economical efficiency and new materials responding to the changing needs of the modern society. Finally, the third project returns to the theme of the, Villa Caraccio, revisiting it with new perspectives. These perspectives find in the solution of the open plant, in the openness to nature and landscape and in the revisiting of materials and local building systems that idea of the freed house, which express clearly a new theoretical thought. Methodology It needs to be noted that due to the lack of an official Archive of Pagano’s work, the analysis of his work has been difficult and this explains the necessity to read the articles and the drawings published in the pages of «Casabella» and «Domus». As for the projects of Villa Colli and Casa a struttura d’acciaio, parts of the original drawings have been consulted. These drawings are not published and are kept in private archives of the collaborators of Pagano. The consultation of these documents has permitted the analysis of the cited works, which have been subject to a more complete reading following the different proposed solutions, which have permitted to understand the project path. The projects are analysed thought the method of comparison and critical reading which, specifically, means graphical elaborations and analytical schemes, mostly reconstructed on the basis of original projects but, where possible, also on a photographic investigation. The focus is on the project theme which, beginning with a specific living (dwelling) typology, finds variations because of the historico-political context in which Pagano is embedded and which partially shapes his research and theoretical thought, then translated in the built work. The analysis of the work follows, beginning, where possible, from a reconstruction of the evolution of the project as elaborated on the basis of the original documents and ending on an analysis of the constructive principles and composition. This second phase employs a methodology proposed by Pagano in his article Piante di ville, which, as expected, focuses on the plant as essential tool to identify the “true practical and poetic qualities of the construction”(Pagano, «Costruzioni-Casabella», 1940, p. 2). The reading of the project is integrated with the constructive analyses related to the technical aspects of the house which, in the case of Casa a struttura d’acciaio, play an important role in the project, while in Villa Colli and in Villa Caraccio are principally linked to the choice of materials for the construction of the different architectural elements. These are nonetheless key factors in the composition of the work. Future work could extend this reading to other house projects to deepen the research that could be completed with the consultation of Archival materials, which are missing at present. Finally, in the appendix I present a critical selection of the Pagano’s writings, which recall the themes discussed and embodied by the three projects. The texts have been selected among the articles published in Casabella and in other journals, completing the reading of the project work which cannot be detached from his theoretical thought. Moving from theory to project, we follow a path that brings us to define and deepen the central theme of the thesis: rational building as the principal feature of the architectural research of Pagano, which is paraphrased in multiple ways in his designed and built works.

Time-of-flight two-photon photoemission spectromicroscopy with femtosecond laser radiation

Time-of-flight photoemission spectromicroscopy was used to measure and compare the two-photon photoemission (2PPE) spectra of Cu and Ag nanoparticles with linear dimensions ranging between 40 nm and several 100 nm, with those of the corresponding homogeneous surfaces. 2PPE was induced employing femtosecond laser radiation from a frequency-doubled Ti:sapphire laser in the spectral range between 375 nm and 425 nm with a pulse width of 200 fs and a repetition rate of 80 MHz. The use of a pulsed radiation source allowed us to use a high-resolution photoemission electron microscope as imaging time-of-flight spectrometer, and thus to obtain spectroscopic information about the laterally resolved electron signal. Ag nanoparticle films have been deposited on Si(111) by electron-beam evaporation, a technique leading to hemispherically-shaped Ag clusters. Isolated Cu nanoparticles have been generated by prolonged heating of a polycrystalline Cu sample. If compared to the spectra of the corresponding homogeneous surfaces, the Cu and Ag nanoparticle spectra are characterized by a strongly enhanced total 2PPE yield (enhancement factor up to 70), by a shift (about 0.1 eV) of the Fermi level onset towards lower final state energies, by a reduction of the work function (typically by 0.2 eV) and by a much steeper increase of the 2PPE yield towards lower final state energies. The shift of the Fermi level onset in the nanoparticle spectra has been explained by a positive unit charge (localized photohole) residing on the particle during the time-scale relevant for the 2PPE process (few femtoseconds). The total 2PPE yield enhancement and the different overall shape of the spectra have been explained by considering that the laser frequency was close to the localized surface plasmon resonance of the Cu and Ag nanoparticles. The synchronous oscillations induced by the laser in the metal electrons enhance the near-zone (NZ) field, defined as the linear superposition of the laser field and the field produced in the vicinity of the particles by the forced charge oscillations. From the present measurements it is clear that the NZ field behavior is responsible for the 2PPE enhancement and affects the 2PPE spatial and energy distribution and its dynamics. In particular, its strong spatial dependence allows indirect transitions through real intermediate states to take place in the metal clusters. Such transitions are forbidden by momentum conservation arguments and are thus experimentally much less probable on homogeneous surfaces. Further, we investigated specially tailored moon-shaped small metal nanostructures, whose NZ field was theoretically predicted, and compared the calculation with the laterally resolved 2PPE signal. We could show that the 2PPE signal gives a clear fingerprint of the theoretically predicted spatial dependence of the NZ field. This potential of our method is highly attractive in the novel field of plasmonics.

The informal market of education in Egypt: Private tutoring and its implications /// Arbeitspapiere / Institut für Ethnologie und Afrikastudien ; 88

Education is generally perceived as a public good which should be provided by the state. In Egypt, free and equal access to education has been guaranteed to all citizens since President Nasser’s socialist reforms in the 1950s. However, due to high population growth rates and a lack of financial resources, the public education system has been struggling to accommodate rapidly increasing numbers of students. While enrolment rates have risen steadily, the quality of state-provided services has deteriorated. Teachers and students have to cope with high class densities, insufficient facilities, a rigid syllabus and a centralized examination system. Today, teaching is among the lowest-paying occupations in the public sector. One strategy to cope with this situation is the widespread practice of private tutoring, which usually takes place at students’ homes or in commercial tutoring centers. Based on research carried out in Cairo in 2004/05 and 2006, I use an actor-centered approach to analyze the motivations of Egyptian teachers and students for participating in private tutoring and the impact that this practice has on the relationship between teachers and students. Students of all socio-economic backgrounds resort to tutoring in order to succeed in a highly competitive and exam-oriented education system. However, the form and quality of tutoring that can be accessed depends on the financial means of the family. For teachers, tutoring provides a good opportunity not only to supplement their income, but also, in the case of renowned “star teachers”, to improve their professional status and autonomy. On the informal “market of education” that has developed in Egypt during the last decades, the educational responsibilities of the state are increasingly being taken over by private actors, i.e. the process of teaching and learning is dissociated from the direct control of the state and from school as an institution. At the same time, education is turned into a marketable commodity. Despite the government’s efforts to provide free education to all citizens, the quality of social services that can be accessed in Egypt, thus, depends mainly on the financial means of the individual or the family.

Direct electron transfer to cytochrome c oxidase investigated by electrochemistry and time-resolved surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy

Cytochrom c Oxidase (CcO), der Komplex IV der Atmungskette, ist eine der Häm-Kupfer enthaltenden Oxidasen und hat eine wichtige Funktion im Zellmetabolismus. Das Enzym enthält vier prosthetische Gruppen und befindet sich in der inneren Membran von Mitochondrien und in der Zellmembran einiger aerober Bakterien. Die CcO katalysiert den Elektronentransfer (ET) von Cytochrom c zu O2, wobei die eigentliche Reaktion am binuklearen Zentrum (CuB-Häm a3) erfolgt. Bei der Reduktion von O2 zu zwei H2O werden vier Protonen verbraucht. Zudem werden vier Protonen über die Membran transportiert, wodurch eine elektrochemische Potentialdifferenz dieser Ionen zwischen Matrix und Intermembranphase entsteht. Trotz ihrer Wichtigkeit sind Membranproteine wie die CcO noch wenig untersucht, weshalb auch der Mechanismus der Atmungskette noch nicht vollständig aufgeklärt ist. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist, einen Beitrag zum Verständnis der Funktion der CcO zu leisten. Hierzu wurde die CcO aus Rhodobacter sphaeroides über einen His-Anker, der am C-Terminus der Untereinheit II angebracht wurde, an eine funktionalisierte Metallelektrode in definierter Orientierung gebunden. Der erste Elektronenakzeptor, das CuA, liegt dabei am nächsten zur Metalloberfläche. Dann wurde eine Doppelschicht aus Lipiden insitu zwischen die gebundenen Proteine eingefügt, was zur sog. proteingebundenen Lipid-Doppelschicht Membran (ptBLM) führt. Dabei musste die optimale Oberflächenkonzentration der gebundenen Proteine herausgefunden werden. Elektrochemische Impedanzspektroskopie(EIS), Oberflächenplasmonenresonanzspektroskopie (SPR) und zyklische Voltammetrie (CV) wurden angewandt um die Aktivität der CcO als Funktion der Packungsdichte zu charakterisieren. Der Hauptteil der Arbeit betrifft die Untersuchung des direkten ET zur CcO unter anaeroben Bedingungen. Die Kombination aus zeitaufgelöster oberflächenverstärkter Infrarot-Absorptionsspektroskopie (tr-SEIRAS) und Elektrochemie hat sich dafür als besonders geeignet erwiesen. In einer ersten Studie wurde der ET mit Hilfe von fast scan CV untersucht, wobei CVs von nicht-aktivierter sowie aktivierter CcO mit verschiedenen Vorschubgeschwindigkeiten gemessen wurden. Die aktivierte Form wurde nach dem katalytischen Umsatz des Proteins in Anwesenheit von O2 erhalten. Ein vier-ET-modell wurde entwickelt um die CVs zu analysieren. Die Methode erlaubt zwischen dem Mechanismus des sequentiellen und des unabhängigen ET zu den vier Zentren CuA, Häm a, Häm a3 und CuB zu unterscheiden. Zudem lassen sich die Standardredoxpotentiale und die kinetischen Koeffizienten des ET bestimmen. In einer zweiten Studie wurde tr-SEIRAS im step scan Modus angewandt. Dafür wurden Rechteckpulse an die CcO angelegt und SEIRAS im ART-Modus verwendet um Spektren bei definierten Zeitscheiben aufzunehmen. Aus diesen Spektren wurden einzelne Banden isoliert, die Veränderungen von Vibrationsmoden der Aminosäuren und Peptidgruppen in Abhängigkeit des Redoxzustands der Zentren zeigen. Aufgrund von Zuordnungen aus der Literatur, die durch potentiometrische Titration der CcO ermittelt wurden, konnten die Banden versuchsweise den Redoxzentren zugeordnet werden. Die Bandenflächen gegen die Zeit aufgetragen geben dann die Redox-Kinetik der Zentren wieder und wurden wiederum mit dem vier-ET-Modell ausgewertet. Die Ergebnisse beider Studien erlauben die Schlussfolgerung, dass der ET zur CcO in einer ptBLM mit größter Wahrscheinlichkeit dem sequentiellen Mechanismus folgt, was dem natürlichen ET von Cytochrom c zur CcO entspricht.

Black Hole and Galaxy Growth over Cosmic Time: the Chandra COSMOS Legacy Survey

The study of supermassive black hole (SMBH) accretion during their phase of activity (hence becoming active galactic nuclei, AGN), and its relation to the host-galaxy growth, requires large datasets of AGN, including a significant fraction of obscured sources. X-ray data are strategic in AGN selection, because at X-ray energies the contamination from non-active galaxies is far less significant than in optical/infrared surveys, and the selection of obscured AGN, including also a fraction of heavily obscured AGN, is much more effective. In this thesis, I present the results of the Chandra COSMOS Legacy survey, a 4.6 Ms X-ray survey covering the equatorial COSMOS area. The COSMOS Legacy depth (flux limit f=2x10^(-16) erg/s/cm^(-2) in the 0.5-2 keV band) is significantly better than that of other X-ray surveys on similar area, and represents the path for surveys with future facilities, like Athena and X-ray Surveyor. The final Chandra COSMOS Legacy catalog contains 4016 point-like sources, 97% of which with redshift. 65% of the sources are optically obscured and potentially caught in the phase of main BH growth. We used the sample of 174 Chandra COSMOS Legacy at z>3 to place constraints on the BH formation scenario. We found a significant disagreement between our space density and the predictions of a physical model of AGN activation through major-merger. This suggests that in our luminosity range the BH triggering through secular accretion is likely preferred to a major-merger triggering scenario. Thanks to its large statistics, the Chandra COSMOS Legacy dataset, combined with the other multiwavelength COSMOS catalogs, will be used to answer questions related to a large number of astrophysical topics, with particular focus on the SMBH accretion in different luminosity and redshift regimes.

Content and English Language Integrated Learning: The use of Moodle in Aircraft Maintenance Training Programs

The aim of this work is to develop a prototype of an e-learning environment that can foster Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for students enrolled in an aircraft maintenance training program, which allows them to obtain a license valid in all EU member states. Background research is conducted to retrace the evolution of the field of educational technology, analyzing different learning theories – behaviorism, cognitivism, and (socio-)constructivism – and reflecting on how technology and its use in educational contexts has changed over time. Particular attention is given to technologies that have been used and proved effective in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Based on the background research and on students’ learning objectives, i.e. learning highly specialized contents and aeronautical technical English, a bilingual approach is chosen, three main tools are identified – a hypertextbook, an exercise creation activity, and a discussion forum – and the learning management system Moodle is chosen as delivery medium. The hypertextbook is based on the technical textbook written in English students already use. In order to foster text comprehension, the hypertextbook is enriched by hyperlinks and tooltips. Hyperlinks redirect students to webpages containing additional information both in English and in Italian, while tooltips show Italian equivalents of English technical terms. The exercise creation activity and the discussion forum foster interaction and collaboration among students, according to socio-constructivist principles. In the exercise creation activity, students collaboratively create a workbook, which allow them to deeply analyze and master the contents of the hypertextbook and at the same time create a learning tool that can help them, as well as future students, to enhance learning. In the discussion forum students can discuss their individual issues, content-related, English-related or e-learning environment-related, helping one other and offering instructors suggestions on how to improve both the hypertextbook and the workbook based on their needs.

Analisi e applicazione dei processi di data mining al flusso informativo di sistemi real-time: Adattamento di un algoritmo di apprendimento automatico per la caratterizzazione e la ricerca di frequent patterns su macchine automatiche

La tesi da me svolta durante questi ultimi sei mesi è stata sviluppata presso i laboratori di ricerca di IMA S.p.a.. IMA (Industria Macchine Automatiche) è una azienda italiana che naque nel 1961 a Bologna ed oggi riveste il ruolo di leader mondiale nella produzione di macchine automatiche per il packaging di medicinali. Vorrei subito mettere in luce che in tale contesto applicativo l’utilizzo di algoritmi di data-mining risulta essere ostico a causa dei due ambienti in cui mi trovo. Il primo è quello delle macchine automatiche che operano con sistemi in tempo reale dato che non presentano a pieno le risorse di cui necessitano tali algoritmi. Il secondo è relativo alla produzione di farmaci in quanto vige una normativa internazionale molto restrittiva che impone il tracciamento di tutti gli eventi trascorsi durante l’impacchettamento ma che non permette la visione al mondo esterno di questi dati sensibili. Emerge immediatamente l’interesse nell’utilizzo di tali informazioni che potrebbero far affiorare degli eventi riconducibili a un problema della macchina o a un qualche tipo di errore al fine di migliorare l’efficacia e l’efficienza dei prodotti IMA. Lo sforzo maggiore per riuscire ad ideare una strategia applicativa è stata nella comprensione ed interpretazione dei messaggi relativi agli aspetti software. Essendo i dati molti, chiusi, e le macchine con scarse risorse per poter applicare a dovere gli algoritmi di data mining ho provveduto ad adottare diversi approcci in diversi contesti applicativi: • Sistema di identificazione automatica di errore al fine di aumentare di diminuire i tempi di correzione di essi. • Modifica di un algoritmo di letteratura per la caratterizzazione della macchina. La trattazione è così strutturata: • Capitolo 1: descrive la macchina automatica IMA Adapta della quale ci sono stati forniti i vari file di log. Essendo lei l’oggetto di analisi per questo lavoro verranno anche riportati quali sono i flussi di informazioni che essa genera. • Capitolo 2: verranno riportati degli screenshoot dei dati in mio possesso al fine di, tramite un’analisi esplorativa, interpretarli e produrre una formulazione di idee/proposte applicabili agli algoritmi di Machine Learning noti in letteratura. • Capitolo 3 (identificazione di errore): in questo capitolo vengono riportati i contesti applicativi da me progettati al fine di implementare una infrastruttura che possa soddisfare il requisito, titolo di questo capitolo. • Capitolo 4 (caratterizzazione della macchina): definirò l’algoritmo utilizzato, FP-Growth, e mostrerò le modifiche effettuate al fine di poterlo impiegare all’interno di macchine automatiche rispettando i limiti stringenti di: tempo di cpu, memoria, operazioni di I/O e soprattutto la non possibilità di aver a disposizione l’intero dataset ma solamente delle sottoporzioni. Inoltre verranno generati dei DataSet per il testing di dell’algoritmo FP-Growth modificato.

Deep learning for computer vision: a comparison between convolutional neural networks and hierarchical temporal memories on object recognition tasks

In recent years, Deep Learning techniques have shown to perform well on a large variety of problems both in Computer Vision and Natural Language Processing, reaching and often surpassing the state of the art on many tasks. The rise of deep learning is also revolutionizing the entire field of Machine Learning and Pattern Recognition pushing forward the concepts of automatic feature extraction and unsupervised learning in general. However, despite the strong success both in science and business, deep learning has its own limitations. It is often questioned if such techniques are only some kind of brute-force statistical approaches and if they can only work in the context of High Performance Computing with tons of data. Another important question is whether they are really biologically inspired, as claimed in certain cases, and if they can scale well in terms of "intelligence". The dissertation is focused on trying to answer these key questions in the context of Computer Vision and, in particular, Object Recognition, a task that has been heavily revolutionized by recent advances in the field. Practically speaking, these answers are based on an exhaustive comparison between two, very different, deep learning techniques on the aforementioned task: Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Hierarchical Temporal memory (HTM). They stand for two different approaches and points of view within the big hat of deep learning and are the best choices to understand and point out strengths and weaknesses of each of them. CNN is considered one of the most classic and powerful supervised methods used today in machine learning and pattern recognition, especially in object recognition. CNNs are well received and accepted by the scientific community and are already deployed in large corporation like Google and Facebook for solving face recognition and image auto-tagging problems. HTM, on the other hand, is known as a new emerging paradigm and a new meanly-unsupervised method, that is more biologically inspired. It tries to gain more insights from the computational neuroscience community in order to incorporate concepts like time, context and attention during the learning process which are typical of the human brain. In the end, the thesis is supposed to prove that in certain cases, with a lower quantity of data, HTM can outperform CNN.

Spatio-temporal credit assignment in population learning

Learning by reinforcement is important in shaping animal behavior, and in particular in behavioral decision making. Such decision making is likely to involve the integration of many synaptic events in space and time. However, using a single reinforcement signal to modulate synaptic plasticity, as suggested in classical reinforcement learning algorithms, a twofold problem arises. Different synapses will have contributed differently to the behavioral decision, and even for one and the same synapse, releases at different times may have had different effects. Here we present a plasticity rule which solves this spatio-temporal credit assignment problem in a population of spiking neurons. The learning rule is spike-time dependent and maximizes the expected reward by following its stochastic gradient. Synaptic plasticity is modulated not only by the reward, but also by a population feedback signal. While this additional signal solves the spatial component of the problem, the temporal one is solved by means of synaptic eligibility traces. In contrast to temporal difference (TD) based approaches to reinforcement learning, our rule is explicit with regard to the assumed biophysical mechanisms. Neurotransmitter concentrations determine plasticity and learning occurs fully online. Further, it works even if the task to be learned is non-Markovian, i.e. when reinforcement is not determined by the current state of the system but may also depend on past events. The performance of the model is assessed by studying three non-Markovian tasks. In the first task, the reward is delayed beyond the last action with non-related stimuli and actions appearing in between. The second task involves an action sequence which is itself extended in time and reward is only delivered at the last action, as it is the case in any type of board-game. The third task is the inspection game that has been studied in neuroeconomics, where an inspector tries to prevent a worker from shirking. Applying our algorithm to this game yields a learning behavior which is consistent with behavioral data from humans and monkeys, revealing themselves properties of a mixed Nash equilibrium. The examples show that our neuronal implementation of reward based learning copes with delayed and stochastic reward delivery, and also with the learning of mixed strategies in two-opponent games.