Two functionally linked amino acids in the stem 2 region of measles virus haemagglutinin determine infectivity and virulence in the rodent central nervous system.

Rodent brain-adapted measles virus (MV) strains, such as CAM/RB and recombinant MVs based on the Edmonston strain containing the haemagglutinin (H) of CAM/RB, cause acute encephalitis after intracerebral infection of newborn rodents. We have demonstrated that rodent neurovirulence is modulated by two mutations at amino acid positions 195 and 200 in the H protein, one of these positions (200) being a potential glycosylation site. In order to analyse the effects of specific amino acids at these positions, we introduced a range of individual and combined mutations into the open reading frame of the H gene to generate a number of eukaryotic expression plasmids. The functionality of the mutant H proteins was assessed in transfected cells and by generating recombinant viruses. Interestingly, viruses caused acute encephalitis only if the amino acid Ser at position 200 was coupled with Gly at position 195, whereas viruses with single or combined mutations at these positions, including glycosylation at position 200, were attenuated. Neurovirulence was associated with virus spread and induction of neuronal apoptosis, whereas attenuated viruses failed to infect brain cells. Similar results were obtained by using primary brain-cell cultures. Our findings indicate that a structural alteration in the stem 2 region of the H protein at position 195 or 200 interferes with infectivity of rodent neurons, and suggest that the interaction of the viral attachment protein with cellular receptors on neurons is affected.

Genetic diversity of liver flukes (Fasciola hepatica) from Eastern Europe.

The genetic diversity of liver fluke populations in three different countries from Eastern Europe (Greece, Bulgaria, and Poland) in comparison with available data from other countries was determined. Specifically, SNPs from regions of two nuclear genes, 28S rDNA, ß-tubulin 3 and an informative region of the mitochondrial genome were examined. Two major lineages for the 28S rDNA gene based on the highly polymorphic 105th nucleotide position were found. These lineages were widely and almost equally spread not only through the countries studied but also in other investigated geographical areas. Two basic lineages and additional haplotypes were defined for the mtDNA gene region, consisting of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit III gene, transfer RNA histidine gene and cytochome b gene. The basic lineages were observed within Greek, Bulgarian, and Polish Fasciola hepatica populations but the distribution of additional haplotypes differed between the populations from the three countries. For the ß-tubulin 3 gene multiple polymorphic sites were revealed but no explicit clades. The SNPs were spread unequally in all studied geographical regions with an evident distinction between the Greek and Polish specimens. Additional genotypes for the 28S rDNA region as well as haplotypes of the mtDNA region that were typical for the Greek or Polish populations were observed. Significant polymorphisms for ß-tubulin 3 gene were displayed with decreasing percentage of presence within populations from Greece to Poland. There was an amino acid substitution in ß-tubulin 3 protein found only among Polish specimens. It is hypothesized that genotypic differences between Greek, Bulgarian, and Polish liver fluke populations are due to territorial division and genetic drift in past epochs.

Protection of DNA against low-energy electrons by amino acids: A first-principles molecular dynamics study

Using first-principles molecular dynamics simulations, we have investigated the notion that amino acids can play a protective role when DNA is exposed to excess electrons produced by ionizing radiation. In this study we focus on the interaction of glycine with the DNA nucleobase thymine. We studied thymine-glycine dimers and a condensed phase model consisting of one thymine molecule solvated in amorphous glycine. Our results show that the amino acid acts as a protective agent for the nucleobase in two ways. If the excess electron is initially captured by the thymine, then a proton is transferred in a barrier-less way from a neighboring hydrogen-bonded glycine. This stabilizes the excess electron by reducing the net partial charge on the thymine. In the second mechanism the excess electron is captured by a glycine, which acts as a electron scavenger that prevents electron localization in DNA. Both these mechanisms introduce obstacles to further reactions of the excess electron within a DNA strand, e.g. by raising the free energy barrier associated with strand breaks.

Chemical communication in the Mozambique tilapia: a role for amino acids

The Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is a maternal mouthbrooding cichlid from the southern Africa. The olfactory sensitivity of the species to 20 amino acids was assessed using the electro-olfactogram (EOG). We estimated whether the olfactory potency of the polar fraction of male urine can be explained by the presence of identified amino acids. In addition, filtrate and amino acid mixture of the urine of Nile tilapia were used to estimate their olfactory potency for O.mossambicus. Finally, concentrations of the main amino acids were measured in the urine of males of different social status and the correlations between amino acid concentration and hierarchical status were explored. L-cysteine, L-glutamine and L-threonine were the most potent stimuli at M while L-proline and L-aspartate were the least potent. Four groups of amino acids were identified according to their thresholds of detection and three groups – according to the similarity of their ɣ-factors. The estimated threshold of detection for O.mossambicus mixture was higher than that for the filtrate. On the contrary, the threshold of detection for the mixture of Nile tilapia was lower than that for the filtrate The concentration of L-arginine in the urine was positively correlated with fish dominance index. Both L-arginine and L-glutamic acid concentrations had much greater variability in dominant males (DI˃0.5) than in subordinate males (DI˂0.5). The urinary concentrations of L-phenylalanine had similar variability in dominant and subordinate groups. The Mozambique tilapia has olfactory sensitivity to all twenty amino acids tested. The fish showed more acute sensitivity to conspecific urine filtrate than to the heterospecific. Olfactory potency of O.mossambicus filtrate can be largely but not fully explained by the presence of L-arginine, L-glutamic acid and L-phenylalanine. Larginine and L-glutamic acid may indicate the dominance status of the fish and, possibly, individual identity.

Phenylketonuria: Protein content and amino acids profile of dishes for phenylketonuric patients. The relevance of phenylalanine

Phenylketonuria is an inborn error of metabolism, involving, in most cases, a deficient activity of phenylalanine hydroxylase. Neonatal diagnosis and a prompt special diet (low phenylalanine and natural-protein restricted diets) are essential to the treatment. The lack of data concerning phenylalanine contents of processed foodstuffs is an additional limitation for an already very restrictive diet. Our goals were to quantify protein (Kjeldahl method) and amino acid (18) content (HPLC/fluorescence) in 16 dishes specifically conceived for phenylketonuric patients, and compare the most relevant results with those of several international food composition databases. As might be expected, all the meals contained low protein levels (0.67–3.15 g/100 g) with the highest ones occurring in boiled rice and potatoes. These foods also contained the highest amounts of phenylalanine (158.51 and 62.65 mg/100 g, respectively). In contrast to the other amino acids, it was possible to predict phenylalanine content based on protein alone. Slight deviations were observed when comparing results with the different food composition databases.

Effects of infused amino acids on glucose production and utilization in healthy human subjects.

Amino acids have been reported to increase endogenous glucose production in normal human subjects during hyperinsulinemia: however, controversy exists as to whether insulin-mediated glucose disposal is inhibited under these conditions. The effect of an amino acid infusion on glucose oxidation rate has so far not been determined. Substrate oxidation rates, endogenous glucose production, and [13C]glucose synthesis from [13C]bicarbonate were measured in six normal human subjects during sequential infusions of exogenous glucose and exogenous glucose with (n = 5) or without (n = 5) exogenous amino acids. Amino acids increased endogenous glucose production by 84% and [13C]glucose synthesis by 235%. Glucose oxidation estimated from indirect calorimetry decreased slightly after amino acids, but glucose oxidation estimated from [13C]glucose-13CO2 data was increased by 14%. It is concluded that gluconeogenesis is the major pathway of amino acid degradation. During amino acid administration, indirect calorimetry underestimates the true rate of glucose oxidation, whereas glucose oxidation calculated from the 13C enrichment of expired CO2 during [U-13C]glucose infusion does not. A slight stimulation of glucose oxidation during amino acid infusion, concomitant with an increased plasma insulin concentration, indicates that amino acids do not inhibit glucose oxidation.

Does Gamma-aminobutyric acid function as a plant resistance mechanism against phytophagous insect activity? /

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GAB A) is a ubiquitous non-protein amino acid synthesized via the decarboxylation of L-glutamate in a reaction catalyzed by the cytosolic enzyme L-glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). In animals it functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. In plants it accumulates rapidly in response to various stresses, but its function remains unclear. The hypothesis that GABA accumulation in leaf tissue may function as a plant resistance mechanism against phytophagous insect activity was investigated. GABA accumulation in response to mechanical stimulation, mechanical damage and insect activity was demonstrated. In wt tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv Samsun), mechanical stimulation or damage caused GABA to accumulate within 2 min from mean levels of 14 to 37 and 1~9 nmol g-l fresh weight (FW), respectively. In the transgenic tobacco strain CaMVGAD27c overexpressing Petunia GAD, the same treatments caused GABA to accumulate from 12 to 59 and 279 nmol g-l FW, respectively. In the transgenic tobacco strain CaMVGADilC 11 overexpressing Petunia GAD lacking an autoinhibitory domain, mechanical stimulation or damage caused GABA to accumulate from 180 to 309 and 630 nmol g-l FW, respectively. Ambulatory activity by tobacco budworm (TBW) larvae (Heliothis virescens) on leaves of CaMVGAD27c tobacco caused GABA to accumulate from 28 to 80 nmol g-l FW within 5 min. Ambulatory and leaf-rolling activity by oblique banded leaf roller (OBLR) larvae (Choristoneura rosaceana cv Harris) on wt soybean leaves (Glycine max cv Harovinton) caused GABA to accumulate from 60 to 1123 nmol g-l FW within 20 min. Increased GABA levels in leaf tissue were shown to affect phytophagous preference in TBW larvae presented with wt and transgenic tobacco leaves. When presented with leaves of Samsun wt and CaMVGAD27c plants, TBW larvae consumed more wt leaf tissue (640 ± 501 S.D. mm2 ) than transgenic leaf tissue (278 ± 338 S.D. mm2 ) nine times out of ten. When presented with leaves of Samsun wt and CaMVGAD~C11 plants, TBW larvae consumed more transgenic leaf tissue (1219 ± 1009 S.D. mm2 ) than wt leaf tissue (28 ± 31 S.D. mm2 ) ten times out of ten. These results indicate that: (1) ambulatory activity of insect larvae on leaves results in increased GABA levels, (2) transgenic tobacco leaves with increased capacity for GABA synthesis deter feeding, and (3) transgenic tobacco leaves with constitutively higher GABA levels stimulate feeding.

L-Glutamate uptake, decarboxylation to -aminobutyric acid and GABA efflux in isolated Asparagus sprengeri mesophyll cells

Addition of L-glutamate caused alkalinization of the medium surrounding Asparagus spreng.ri mesophyll cells. This suggests a H+/L-glutmate symport uptake system for L-glutamate. However stoichiometries of H+/L-glutamate symport into Asparagus cells were much higher than those in other plant systems. Medium alkalinization may also result from a metabolic decarboxylation process. Since L-glutmate is decarboxylated to r-amino butyric acid (SABA) in this system, the origin of medium alkalinization was reconsidered. Suspensions of mechanically isolated and photosyntheically competent Asparagus sprengeri mesophyll cells were used to investigate the H+/L-glutamate symport system, SABA production, GABA transport, and the origin of L-glutamate dependent medium alkalinization. The major results obtained are summarized as follows: 1. L-Glutamate and GABA were the second or third most abundant amino acids in these cells. Cellular concentrations of L-glutamate were 1.09 mM and 1.31 mM in the light and dark, respectively. Those of SABA were 1.23 mM and 1.17 mM in the light and dark, respectively. 2. Asparagine was the most abundant amino acid in xylem sap and comprised 54 to 68 1. of the amino acid pool on a molar basis. GABA was the second most abundant amino acid and represented 10 to 11 1. of the amino acid pool. L-Slutamate was a minor component. 3. A 10 minute incubation with 1 mM L-glutamate increased the production of GABA in the medium by 2,743 7. and 2,241 7. in the light and dark, respectively. 4. L-Glutamate entered the cells prior to decarboxylation. 5. There was no evidence for a H+/GABA symport process • 6. GABA was produced by loss of carbon-1 of L-glutamate. 7. The specific activity of newly synthesized labeled GABA suggests that it is not equilibrated with a storage pool of GABA. 8. The mechanism of GABA efflux appears to be a passive process. 9. The evidence indicates that the origin of L-glutamate dependent medium alkalinization is a H+/L-glutamate symport not an extracellular decarboxylation. The possible role of GABA production in regulating cytoplasmic pH and L-glutamate levels during rapid electrogenic H+/L-glutamate symport is discussed.

The Role of Specific Amino Acids in the Formation of Ternary Complexes in Nitrogenase Regulation in the Photosynthetic Bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus

L'azote est l'un des éléments les plus essentiels dans le monde pour les êtres vivants, car il est essentiel pour la production des éléments de base de la cellule, les acides aminés, les acides nucléiques et les autres constituants cellulaires. L’atmosphère est composé de 78% d'azote gazeux, une source d'azote inutilisable par la plupart des organismes à l'exception de ceux qui possèdent l’enzyme nitrogénase, tels que les bactéries diazotrophique. Ces micro-organismes sont capables de convertir l'azote atmosphérique en ammoniac (NH3), qui est l'une des sources d'azote les plus préférables. Cette réaction exigeant l’ATP, appelée fixation de l'azote, est catalysée par une enzyme, nitrogénase, qui est l'enzyme la plus importante dans le cycle de l'azote. Certaines protéines sont des régulateurs potentiels de la synthèse de la nitrogénase et de son activité; AmtB, DraT, DraG, les protéines PII, etc.. Dans cette thèse, j'ai effectué diverses expériences afin de mieux comprendre leurs rôles détailés dans Rhodobacter capsulatus. La protéine membranaire AmtB, très répandue chez les archaea, les bactéries et les eucaryotes, est un membre de la famille MEP / Amt / Rh. Les protéines AmtB sont des transporteurs d'ammonium, importateurs d'ammonium externe, et ont également été suggéré d’agir comme des senseurs d'ammonium. Il a été montré que l’AmtB de Rhodobacter capsulatus fonctionne comme un capteur pour détecter la présence d'ammonium externe pour réguler la nitrogénase. La nitrogénase est constituée de deux métalloprotéines nommées MoFe-protéine et Fe-protéine. L'addition d'ammoniaque à une culture R. capsulatus conduit à une série de réactions qui mènent à la désactivation de la nitrogénase, appelé "nitrogénase switch-off". Une réaction critique dans ce processus est l’ajout d’un groupe ADP-ribose à la Fe-protéine par DraT. L'entrée de l'ammoniac dans la cellule à travers le pore AmtB est contrôlée par la séquestration de GlnK. GlnK est une protéine PII et les protéines PII sont des protéines centrales dans la régulation du métabolisme de l'azote. Non seulement la séquestration de GlnK par AmtB est importante dans la régulation nitrogénase, mais la liaison de l'ammonium par AmtB ou de son transport partiel est également nécessaire. Les complexes AmtB-GlnK sont supposés de lier DraG, l’enzyme responsable pour enlever l'ADP-ribose ajouté à la nitrogénase par DraT, ainsi formant un complexe ternaire. Dans cette thèse certains détails du mécanisme de transduction du signal et de transport d'ammonium ont été examinés par la génération et la caractérisation d’un mutant dirigé, RCZC, (D335A). La capacité de ce mutant, ainsi que des mutants construits précédemment, RCIA1 (D338A), RCIA2 (G344C), RCIA3 (H193E) et RCIA4 (W237A), d’effectuer le « switch-off » de la nitrogénase a été mesurée par chromatographie en phase gazeuse. Les résultats ont révélé que tous les résidus d'acides aminés ci-dessus ont un rôle essentiel dans la régulation de la nitrogénase. L’immunobuvardage a également été effectués afin de vérifier la présence de la Fe-protéine l'ADP-ribosylée. D335, D388 et W237 semblent être cruciales pour l’ADP-ribosylation, puisque les mutants RCZC, RCIA1 et RCIA4 n'a pas montré de l’ADP-ribosylation de la Fe-protéine. En outre, même si une légère ADP-ribosylation a été observée pour RCIA2 (G344C), nous le considérons comme un résidu d'acide aminé important dans la régulation de la nitrogénase. D’un autre coté, le mutant RCIA3 (H193E) a montré une ADP-ribosylation de la Fe-protéine après un choc d'ammonium, par conséquent, il ne semble pas jouer un rôle important dans l’ADP-ribosylation. Par ailleurs R. capsulatus possède une deuxième Amt appelé AmtY, qui, contrairement à AmtB, ne semble pas avoir des rôles spécifiques. Afin de découvrir ses fonctionnalités, AmtY a été surexprimée dans une souche d’E. coli manquant l’AmtB (GT1001 pRSG1) (réalisée précédemment par d'autres membres du laboratoire) et la formation des complexes AmtY-GlnK en réponse à l'addition d’ammoniac a été examinée. Il a été montré que même si AmtY est en mesure de transporter l'ammoniac lorsqu'il est exprimé dans E. coli, elle ne peut pass’ associer à GlnK en réponse à NH4 +.

Acid activated montmorillonite: an efficient immobilization support for improving reusability, storage stability and operational stability of enzymes

Three enzymes, α-amylase, glucoamylase and invertase, were immobilized on acid activated montmorillonite K 10 via two independent techniques, adsorption and covalent binding. The immobilized enzymes were characterized by XRD, N2 adsorption measurements and 27Al MAS-NMR spectroscopy. The XRD patterns showed that all enzymes were intercalated into the clay inter-layer space. The entire protein backbone was situated at the periphery of the clay matrix. Intercalation occurred through the side chains of the amino acid residues. A decrease in surface area and pore volume upon immobilization supported this observation. The extent of intercalation was greater for the covalently bound systems. NMR data showed that tetrahedral Al species were involved during enzyme adsorption whereas octahedral Al was involved during covalent binding. The immobilized enzymes demonstrated enhanced storage stability. While the free enzymes lost all activity within a period of 10 days, the immobilized forms retained appreciable activity even after 30 days of storage. Reusability also improved upon immobilization. Here again, covalently bound enzymes exhibited better characteristics than their adsorbed counterparts. The immobilized enzymes could be successfully used continuously in the packed bed reactor for about 96 hours without much loss in activity. Immobilized glucoamylase demonstrated the best results.

Characterisation and Distribution of Amino Acids in the Mangrove Sediments of Kochi

Mangrove swamps are unique inter-tidal wetland ecosystems found in sheltered tropical and subtropical shores.Mangrove sediments can be considered as large reservoirs of amino acids,which exist in several different forms,like free amino acids in the sediment micropores,as amino acids,peptides or proteins bound to clay minerals or as amino acids,peptides or proteins bound to humic colloids.Inorder to assess survival conditions of organisms of mangroves,it is important to understand stability of amino acids in the sediments.The amounts of amino acids present in sediment represent a balance between its synthesis and destruction by microorganisms.Thus amino acid analysis offers more insight into the processes of diagenesis,which changes the nature and characteristics of organic matter deposition and decomposition.

Characterization of Histone H2A Derived Antimicrobial Peptides, Harriottins, from Sicklefin Chimaera Neoharriotta pinnata (Schnakenbeck, 1931) and Its Evolutionary Divergence with respect to CO1 and Histone H2A

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are humoral innate immune components of fishes that provide protection against pathogenic infections. Histone derived antimicrobial peptides are reported to actively participate in the immune defenses of fishes. Present study deals with identification of putative antimicrobial sequences from the histone H2A of sicklefin chimaera, Neoharriotta pinnata. A 52 amino acid residue termed Harriottin-1, a 40 amino acid Harriottin-2, and a 21 mer Harriottin-3 were identified to possess antimicrobial sequence motif. Physicochemical properties andmolecular structure ofHarriottins are in agreement with the characteristic features of antimicrobial peptides, indicating its potential role in innate immunity of sicklefin chimaera. The histone H2A sequence of sicklefin chimera was found to differ from previously reported histone H2A sequences. Phylogenetic analysis based on histone H2A and cytochrome oxidase subunit-1 (CO1) gene revealed N. pinnata to occupy an intermediate position with respect to invertebrates and vertebrates

Characterization and Pathogenicity of Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio vulnificus from Marine environments

The genus Vibrioof the family Vibrionaceae are Gram negative, oxidasepositive, rod- or curved- rodshaped facultative anaerobes, widespread in marine and estuarine environments. Vibrio species are opportunistic human pathogens responsible for diarrhoeal disease, gastroenteritis, septicaemia and wound infections and are also pathogens of aquatic organisms, causing infections to crustaceans, bivalves and fishes. In the present study, marine environmental samples like seafood and water and sediment samples from aquafarms and mangroves were screened for the presence of Vibrio species. Of the134 isolates obtained from the various samples, 45 were segregated to the genus Vibrio on the basis of phenotypic characterization.like Gram staining, oxidase test, MoF test and salinity tolerance. Partial 16S rDNA sequence analysis was utilized for species level identification of the isolates and the strains were identified as V. cholerae(N=21), V. vulnificus(N=18), V. parahaemolyticus(N=3), V. alginolyticus (N=2) and V. azureus (N=1). The genetic relatedness and variations among the 45 Vibrio isolates were elucidated based on 16S rDNA sequences. Phenotypic characterization of the isolates was based on their response to 12 biochemical tests namely Voges-Proskauers’s (VP test), arginine dihydrolase , tolerance to 3% NaCl test, ONPG test that detects β-galactosidase activity, and tests for utilization of citrate, ornithine, mannitol, arabinose, sucrose, glucose, salicin and cellobiose. The isolates exhibited diverse biochemical patterns, some specific for the species and others indicative of their environmental source.Antibiogram for the isolates was determined subsequent to testing their susceptibility to 12 antibiotics by the disc diffusion method. Varying degrees of resistance to gentamycin (2.22%), ampicillin(62.22%), nalidixic acid (4.44%), vancomycin (86.66), cefixime (17.77%), rifampicin (20%), tetracycline (42.22%) and chloramphenicol (2.22%) was exhibited. All the isolates were susceptible to streptomycin, co-trimoxazole, trimethoprim and azithromycin. Isolates from all the three marine environments exhibited multiple antibiotic resistance, with high MAR index value. The molecular typing methods such as ERIC PCR and BOX PCR revealed intraspecies relatedness and genetic heterogeneity within the environmental isolatesof V. cholerae and V. vulnificus. The 21 strains of V. choleraewere serogroupedas non O1/ non O139 by screening for the presence O1rfb and O139 rfb marker genes by PCR. The virulence/virulence associated genes namely ctxA, ctxB, ace, VPI, hlyA, ompU, rtxA, toxR, zot, nagst, tcpA, nin and nanwere screened in V. cholerae and V. vulnificusstrains.The V. vulnificusstrains were also screened for three species specific genes viz., cps, vvhand viu. In V. cholerae strains, the virulence associated genes like VPI, hlyA, rtxA, ompU and toxR were confirmed by PCR. All the isolates, except for strain BTOS6, harbored at least one or a combination of the tested genes and V. choleraestrain BTPR5 isolated from prawn hosted the highest number of virulence associated genes. Among the V. vulnificusstrains, only 3 virulence genes, VPI, toxR and cps, were confirmed out of the 16 tested and only 7 of the isolates had these genes in one or more combinations. Strain BTPS6 from aquafarm and strain BTVE4 from mangrove samples yielded positive amplification for the three genes. The toxRgene from 9 strains of V. choleraeand 3 strains of V. vulnificus were cloned and sequenced for phylogenetic analysis based on nucleotide and the amino acid sequences. Multiple sequence alignment of the nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences of the environmental strains of V. choleraerevealed that the toxRgene in the environmental strains are 100% homologous to themselves and to the V. choleraetoxR gene sequence available in the Genbank database. The 3 strains of V. vulnificus displayed high nucleotide and amino acid sequence similarity among themselves and to the sequences of V. cholerae and V. harveyi obtained from the GenBank database, but exhibited only 72% homology to the sequences of its close relative V. vulnificus. Structure prediction of the ToxR protein of Vibrio cholerae strain BTMA5 was by PHYRE2 software. The deduced amino acid sequence showed maximum resemblance with the structure of DNA-binding domain of response regulator2 from Escherichia coli k-12 Template based homology modelling in PHYRE2 successfully modelled the predicted protein and its secondary structure based on protein data bank (PDB) template c3zq7A. The pathogenicity studies were performed using the nematode Caenorhabditiselegansas a model system. The assessment of pathogenicity of environmental strain of V. choleraewas conducted with E. coli strain OP50 as the food source in control plates, environmental V. cholerae strain BTOS6, negative for all tested virulence genes, to check for the suitability of Vibrio sp. as a food source for the nematode;V. cholerae Co 366 ElTor, a clinical pathogenic strain and V. cholerae strain BTPR5 from seafood (Prawn) and positive for the tested virulence genes like VPI, hlyA, ompU,rtxA and toxR. It was found that V. cholerae strain BTOS6 could serve as a food source in place of E. coli strain OP50 but behavioral aberrations like sluggish movement and lawn avoidance and morphological abnormalities like pharyngeal and intestinal distensions and bagging were exhibited by the worms fed on V. cholerae Co 366 ElTor strain and environmental BTPR5 indicating their pathogenicity to the nematode. Assessment of pathogenicity of the environmental strains of V. vulnificus was performed with V. vulnificus strain BTPS6 which tested positive for 3 virulence genes, namely, cps, toxRand VPI, and V. vulnificus strain BTMM7 that did not possess any of the tested virulence genes. A reduction was observed in the life span of worms fed on environmental strain of V. vulnificusBTMM7 rather than on the ordinary laboratory food source, E. coli OP50. Behavioral abnormalities like sluggish movement, lawn avoidance and bagging were also observed in the worms fed with strain BTPS6, but the pharynx and the intestine were intact. The presence of multi drug resistant environmental Vibrio strainsthat constitute a major reservoir of diverse virulence genes are to be dealt with caution as they play a decisive role in pathogenicity and horizontal gene transfer in the marine environments.

Legumes regulate Rhizobium bacteroid development and persistence by the supply of branched-chain amino acids

One of the largest contributions to biologically available nitrogen comes from the reduction of N-2 to ammonia by rhizobia in symbiosis with legumes. Plants supply dicarboxylic acids as a carbon source to bacteroids, and in return they receive ammonia. However, metabolic exchange must be more complex, because effective N-2 fixation by Rhizobium leguminosarum bv viciae bacteroids requires either one of two broad-specificity amino acid ABC transporters (Aap and Bra). It was proposed that amino acids cycle between plant and bacteroids, but the model was unconstrained because of the broad solute specificity of Aap and Bra. Here, we constrain the specificity of Bra and ectopically express heterologous transporters to demonstrate that branched-chain amino acid (LIV) transport is essential for effective N-2 fixation. This dependence of bacteroids on the plant for LIV is not due to their known down-regulation of glutamate synthesis, because ectopic expression of glutamate dehydrogenase did not rescue effective N-2 fixation. Instead, the effect is specific to LIV and is accompanied by a major reduction in transcription and activity of LIV biosynthetic enzymes. Bacteroids become symbiotic auxotrophs for LIV and depend on the plant for their supply. Bacteroids with aap bra null mutations are reduced in number, smaller, and have a lower DNA content than wild type. Plants control LIV supply to bacteroids, regulating their development and persistence. This makes it a critical control point for regulation of symbiosis. MICROBIOLOGY

Characterization of a gamma-aminobutyric acid transport system of rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae 3841

Spontaneous mutants of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae 3841 were isolated that grow faster than the wild type on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as the sole carbon and nitrogen source. These strains (RU1736 and RU1816) have frameshift mutations (gtsR101 and gtsR102, respectively) in a GntR-type regulator (GtsR) that result in a high rate of constitutive GABA transport. Tn5 mutagenesis and quantitative reverse transcription-PCR showed that GstR regulates expression of a large operon (pRL100242 to pRL100252) on the Sym plasmid that is required for GABA uptake. An ABC transport system, GtsABCD (for GABA transport system) (pRL100248-51), of the spermidine/putrescine family is part of this operon. GtsA is a periplasmic binding protein, GtsB and GtsC are integral membrane proteins, and GtsD is an ATP-binding subunit. Expression of gtsABCD from a lacZ promoter confirmed that it alone is responsible for high rates of GABA transport, enabling rapid growth of strain 3841 on GABA. Gts transports open-chain compounds with four or five carbon atoms with carboxyl and amino groups at, or close to, opposite termini. However, aromatic compounds with similar spacing between carboxyl and amino groups are excellent inhibitors of GABA uptake so they may also be transported. In addition to the ABC transporter, the operon contains two putative mono-oxygenases, a putative hydrolase, a putative aldehyde dehydrogenase, and a succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase. This suggests the operon may be involved in the transport and breakdown of a more complex precursor to GABA. Gts is not expressed in pea bacteroids, and gtsB mutants are unaltered in their symbiotic phenotype, suggesting that Bra is the only GABA transport system available for amino acid cycling.