Adenosine receptor type 2a is differently modulated by nicotine in dorsal brainstem cells of Wistar Kyoto and spontaneously hypertensive rats

Hypertension can result from neuronal network imbalance in areas of central nervous system that control blood pressure, such as the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). There are several neurotransmitters and neuromodulatory substances within the NTS, such as adenosine, which acts on purinoreceptors A(2a) (A(2a)R). The A(2a)R modulates neurotransmission in the NTS where its activation may induce decrease in blood pressure by different mechanisms. Nicotine is a molecule that crosses the hematoencephalic barrier and acts in several areas of central nervous system including the NTS, where it may interact with some neurotransmitter systems and contributes to the development of hypertension in subjects with genetic predisposition to this disease. In this study we first determined A(2a)R binding, protein, and mRNA expression in dorsomedial medulla oblongata of neonate normotensive (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Subsequently, we analyzed the modulatory effects of nicotine on A(2a)R in cell culture in order to evaluate its possible involvement in the development of hypertension. Data showed a decreased A(2a)R binding and increased protein and mRNA expression in tissue sample and culture of dorsal brainstem from SHR compared with those from WKY rats at basal conditions. Moreover, nicotine modulated A(2a)R binding, protein, and mRNA expression in cells from both strains. Interestingly, nicotine decreased A(2a)R binding and increased protein levels, as well as, induced a differential modulation in A(2a)R mRNA expression. Results give us a clue about the mechanisms involved in the modulatory effects of nicotine on A(2a)R as well as hypothesize its possible contribution to the development of hypertension. In conclusion, we demonstrated that A(2a)R of SHR cells which differ from WKY and nicotine differentially modulates A(2a)R in dorsal brainstem cells of SHR and WKY.

Functionally conserved cis-regulatory elements of COL18A1 identified through zebrafish transgenesis

Type XVIII collagen is a component of basement membranes, and expressed prominently in the eye, blood vessels, liver, and the central nervous system. Homozygous mutations in COL18A1 lead to Knobloch Syndrome, characterized by ocular defects and occipital encephalocele. However, relatively little has been described on the role of type XVIII collagen in development, and nothing is known about the regulation of its tissue-specific expression pattern. We have used zebrafish transgenesis to identify and characterize cis-regulatory sequences controlling expression of the human gene. Candidate enhancers were selected from non-coding sequence associated with COL18A1 based on sequence conservation among mammals. Although these displayed no overt conservation with orthologous zebrafish sequences, four regions nonetheless acted as tissue-specific transcriptional enhancers in the zebrafish embryo, and together recapitulated the major aspects of col18a1 expression. Additional post-hoc computational analysis on positive enhancer sequences revealed alignments between mammalian and teleost sequences, which we hypothesize predict the corresponding zebrafish enhancers; for one of these, we demonstrate functional overlap with the orthologous human enhancer sequence. Our results provide important insight into the biological function and regulation of COL18A1, and point to additional sequences that may contribute to complex diseases involving COL18A1. More generally, we show that combining functional data with targeted analyses for phylogenetic conservation can reveal conserved cis-regulatory elements in the large number of cases where computational alignment alone falls short. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Morphology of terebelliform polychaetes (Annelida: Polychaeta: Terebelliformia), with a focus on Terebellidae

The morphology of terebelliform polychaetes was investigated for a phylogenetic study focused on Terebellidae. For this study, specimens belonging to 147 taxa, preferably type material or specimens from type localities or areas close to them, were examined under stereo, light and scanning electron microscopes. The taxa examined were 1 Pectinariidae, 2 Ampharetidae, 2 Alvinellidae, 8 Trichobranchidae, and 134 Terebellidae, which included 8 Polycirrinae, 15 Thelepodinae, and 111 Terebellinae. A comparison of the morphology, including prostomium, peristomium, anterior segments and lobes, branchiae, glandular venter, nephridial and genital papillae, notopodia and notochaetae, neuropodia and neurochaetae, and posterior end, was made of all the currently recognized families of terebelliform polychaetes, with special emphasis on Terebellidae. A discussion of the characters useful to distinguish between genera is given. This character set will be used in a subsequent phylogenetic study (Nogueira & Hutchings in prep.)

Dipeptidyl peptidase IV in the hypothalamus and hippocampus of monosodium glutamate obese and food-deprived rats

Proline-specific dipeptidyl peptidases are emerging as a protease family with important roles in the regulation of signaling by peptide hormones related to energy balance. The treatment of neonatal rats with monosodium glutamate (MSG) is known to produce a selective damage on the arcuate nucleus with development of obesity. This study investigates the relationship among dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) hydrolyzing activity, CD26 protein, fasting, and MSG model of obesity in 2 areas of the central nervous system. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV and CD26 were, respectively, evaluated by fluorometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction in soluble (SF) and membrane-bound (MF) fractions from the hypothalamus and hippocampus of MSG-treated and normal rats, submitted or not to food deprivation (FD). Dipeptidyl peptidase IV in both areas was distinguished kinetically as insensitive (DI) and sensitive (DS) to diprotin A. Compared with the controls, MSG and/or FD decreased the activity of DPPIV-DI in the SF and MF from the hypothalamus, as well as the activity of DPPIV-DS in the SF from the hypothalamus and in the MF from the hippocampus. Monosodium glutamate and/or FD increased the activity of DPPIV-DI in the MF from the hippocampus. The monoclonal protein expression of membrane CD26 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay decreased in the hypothalamus and increased in the hippocampus of MSG and/or FD relative to the controls. The existence of DPPIV-like activity with different sensitivities to diprotin A and the identity of insensitive with CD26 were demonstrated for the first time in the central nervous system. Data also demonstrated the involvement of DPPIV-DI/CD26 hydrolyzing activity in the energy balance probably through the regulation of neuropeptide Y and beta-endorphin levels in the hypothalamus and hippocampus. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Blockage of Angiotensin II type 2 receptor prevents thyroxine-mediated cardiac hypertrophy by blocking Akt activation

Although most of effects of Angiotensin II (Ang II) related to cardiac remodelling can be attributed to type 1 Ang II receptor (AT(1)R), the type 2 receptor (AT(2)R) has been shown to be involved in the development of some cardiac hypertrophy models. In the present study, we investigated whether the thyroid hormone (TH) action leading to cardiac hypertrophy is also mediated by increased Ang II levels or by change on AT(1)R and AT(2)R expression, which could contribute to this effect. In addition, we also evaluated the possible contribution of AT(2)R in the activation of Akt and in the development of TH-induced cardiac hypertrophy. To address these questions, Wistar rats were treated with thyroxine (T(4), 0.1 mg/kg BW/day, i.p.), with or without AT(2)R blocker (PD123319), for 14 days. Cardiac hypertrophy was identified based on heart/body weight ratio and confirmed by analysis of atrial natriuretic factor mRNA expression. Cardiomyocyte cultures were used to exclude the influence of TH-related hemodynamic effects. Our results demonstrate that the cardiac Ang II levels were significantly increased (80%, P < 0.001) as well as the AT(2)R expression (50%, P < 0.05) in TH-induced cardiac hypertrophy. The critical involvement of AT(2)R to the development of this cardiac hypertrophy in vivo was evidenced after administration of AT(2) blocker, which was able to prevent in 40% (P < 0.01) the cardiac mass gain and the Akt activation induced by TH. The role of AT(2)R to the TH-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy was also confirmed after using PD123319 in the in vitro studies. These findings improve understanding of the cardiac hypertrophy observed in hyperthyroidism and provide new insights into the generation of future therapeutic strategies.

Differential regulation of FGF-2 in neurons and reactive astrocytes of axotomized rat hypoglossal nucleus. A possible therapeutic target for neuroprotection in peripheral nerve pathology

Despite the favorable treatment of cranial nerve neuropathology in adulthood, some cases are resistant to therapy leading to permanent functional impairments In many cases, suitable treatment is problematic as the therapeutic target remains unknown Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF, FGF 2) is involved in neuronal maintenance and wound repair following nervous system lesions It is one of few neurotrophic molecules acting in autocrine, paracrine and intracrine fashions depending upon specific circumstances Peripheral cranial somatic motor neurons, i e hypoglossal (XII) neurons, may offer a unique opportunity to study cellular FGF 2 mechanisms as the molecule is present in the cytoplasm of neurons and in the nuclei of astrocytes of the central nervous system FGF-2 may trigger differential actions during development, maintenance and lesion of XII neurons because axotomy of those cells leads to cell death during neonatal ages, but not in adult life Moreover, the modulatory effects of astroglial FGF 2 and the Ca+2 binding protein S100 beta have been postulated in paracrine mechanisms after neuronal lesions In our study, adult Wistar rats received a unilateral crush or transection (with amputation of stumps) of XII nerve, and were sacrificed after 72 h or 11 days Brains were processed for immunohistochemical localization of neurofilaments (NF), with or without counterstaining for Nissl substance, ghat fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, as a marker of astrocytes), S100 beta and FGF-2 The number of Nissl positive neurons of axotomized XII nucleus did not differ from controls The NF immunoreactivity increased in the perikarya and decreased in the neuropil of axotomized XII neurons 11 days after nerve crush or transection An astrocytic reaction was seen in the ipsilateral XII nucleus of the crushed or transected animals 72 h and 11 days after the surgery The nerve lesions did not change the number of FGF-2 neurons in the ipsilateral XII nucleus, however, the nerve transection increased the number of FGF-2 ghat profiles by 72 h and 11 days Microdensitometric image analysis revealed a short lasting decrease in the intensity of FGF 2 immunoreactivity in axotomized XII neurons by 72 h after nerve crush or transection and also an elevation of FGF-2 in the ipsilateral of ghat nuclei by 72h and 11 days after the two lesions S100 beta decreased in astrocytes of 11-day transected XII nucleus The two-color immunoperoxidase for the simultaneous detection of the GFAP/FGF-2 indicated FGF-2 upregulation in the nuclei of reactive astrocytes of the lesioned XII nucleus Astroglial FGF-2 may exert paracrine trophic actions in mature axotomized XII neurons and might represent a therapeutic target for neuroprotection in peripheral nerve pathology (C) 2009 Elsevier GmbH All rights reserved

Differential expression of connexins during histogenesis of the chick retina

Gap junction (GJ) channels couple adjacent cells, allowing transfer of second messengers, ions, and molecules up to 1 kDa. These channels are composed by a multigene family of integral membrane proteins called connexins (Cx). In the retina, besides being essential circuit element in the visual processing, GJ channels also play important roles during its development. Herein, we analyzed Cx43, Cx45, Cx50, and Cx56 expression during chick retinal histogenesis. Cx exhibited distinct expression profiles during retinal development, except for Cx56, whose expression was not detected. Cx43 immunolabeling was observed at early development, in the transition of ventricular zone and pigmented epithelium. Later, Cx43 was seen in the outer plexiform and ganglion cell layers, and afterwards also in the inner plexiform layer. We observed remarkable changes in the phosphorylation status of this protein, which indicated modifications in functional properties of this Cx during retinal histogenesis. By contrast, Cx45 showed stable gene expression levels throughout development and ubiquitous immunoreactivity in progenitor cells. From later embryonic development, Cx45 was mainly observed in the inner retina, and it was expressed by glial cells and neurons. In turn, Cx50 was virtually absent in the chick retina at initial embryonic phases. Combination of PCR, immunohistochemistry and Western blot indicated that this Cx was present in differentiated cells, arising in parallel with the formation of the visual circuitry. Characterization of Cx expression in the developing chick retina indicated particular roles for these proteins and revealed similarities and differences when compared to other species. (C) 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Long-Term Culture of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Adherent Neurospheres and Functional Neurons

Innumerous protocols, using the mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells as model for in vitro study of neurons functional properties and features, have been developed. Most of these protocols are short lasting, which, therefore, does not allow a careful analysis of the neurons maturation, aging, and death processes. We describe here a novel and efficient long-lasting protocol for in vitro ES cells differentiation into neuronal cells. It consists of obtaining embryoid bodies, followed by induction of neuronal differentiation with retinoic acid of nonadherent embryoid bodies (three-dimensional model), which further allows their adherence and formation of adherent neurospheres (AN, bi-dimensional model). The AN can be maintained for at least 12 weeks in culture under repetitive mechanical splitting, providing a constant microenvironment (in vitro niche) for the neuronal progenitor cells avoiding mechanical dissociation of AN. The expression of neuron-specific proteins, such as nestin, sox1, beta III-tubulin, microtubule-associated protein 2, neurofilament medium protein, Tau, neuronal nuclei marker, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and 5-hydroxytryptamine, were confirmed in these cells maintained during 3 months under several splitting. Additionally, expression pattern of microtubule-associated proteins, such as lissencephaly (Lis1) and nuclear distribution element-like (Ndel1), which were shown to be essential for differentiation and migration of neurons during embryogenesis, was also studied. As expected, both proteins were expressed in undifferentiated ES cells, AN, and nonrosette neurons, although presenting different spatial distribution in AN. In contrast to previous studies, using cultured neuronal cells derived from embryonic and adult tissues, only Ndel1 expression was observed in the centrosome region of early neuroblasts from AN. Mature neurons, obtained from ES cells in this work, display ionic channels and oscillations of membrane electrical potential typical of electrically excitable cells, which is a characteristic feature of the functional central nervous system (CNS) neurons. Taken together, our study demonstrated that AN are a long-term culture of neuronal cells that can be used to analyze the process of neuronal differentiation dynamics. Thus, the protocol described here provides a new experimental model for studying neurological diseases associated with neuronal differentiation during early development, as well as it represents a novel source of functional cells that can be used as tools for testing the effects of toxins and/or drugs on neuronal cells.

Tissue distribution of quiescin Q6/sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) in developing mouse

Quiescin Q6/sulfhydryl oxidases (QSOX) are revisited thiol oxidases considered to be involved in the oxidative protein folding, cell cycle control and extracellular matrix remodeling. They contain thioredoxin domains and introduce disulfide bonds into proteins and peptides, with the concomitant hydrogen peroxide formation, likely altering the redox environment. Since it is known that several developmental processes are regulated by the redox state, here we assessed if QSOX could have a role during mouse fetal development. For this purpose, an anti-recombinant mouse QSOX antibody was produced and characterized. In E-13.5, E-16.5 fetal tissues, QSOX immunostaining was confined to mesoderm- and ectoderm-derived tissues, while in P1 neonatal tissues it was slightly extended to some endoderm-derived tissues. QSOX expression, particularly by epithelial tissues, seemed to be developmentally-regulated, increasing with tissue maturation. QSOX was observed in loose connective tissues in all stages analyzed, intra and possibly extracellularly, in agreement with its putative role in oxidative folding and extracellular matrix remodeling. In conclusion, QSOX is expressed in several tissues during mouse development, but preferentially in those derived from mesoderm and ectoderm, suggesting it could be of relevance during developmental processes.

Tempol ameliorates murine viral encephalomyelitis by preserving the blood-brain barrier, reducing viral load, and lessening inflammation

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive inflammatory and/or demyelinating disease of the human central nervous system (CNS). Most of the knowledge about the pathogenesis of MS has been derived from murine models, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and vital encephalomyelitis. Here, we infected female C57BL/6 mice with a neurotropic strain of the mouse hepatitis virus (MHV-59A) to evaluate whether treatment with the multifunctional antioxidant tempol (4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy) affects the ensuing encephalomyelitis. In untreated animals, neurological symptoms developed quickly: 90% of infected mice died 10 days after virus inoculation and the few survivors presented neurological deficits. Treatment with tempol (24 mg/kg, ip, two doses on the first day and daily doses for 7 days plus 2 mM tempol in the drinking water ad libitum) profoundly altered the disease outcome: neurological symptoms were attenuated, mouse survival increased up to 70%, and half of the survivors behaved as normal mice. Not Surprisingly, tempol substantially preserved the integrity of the CNS, including the blood-brain barrier. Furthermore, treatment with tempol decreased CNS vital titers, macrophage and T lymphocyte infiltration, and levels of markers of inflammation, such as expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, transcription of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma, and protein nitration. The results indicate that tempol ameliorates murine viral encephalomyelitis by altering the redox status of the infectious environment that contributes to an attenuated CNS inflammatory response. overall, our study supports the development of therapeutic strategies based on nitroxides to manage neuroinflammatory diseases, including MS. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Low levels of methylmercury induce DNA damage in rats: protective effects of selenium

In this study we examined the possible antigenotoxic effect of selenium (Se) in rats chronically exposed to low levels of methylmercury (MeHg) and the association between glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity and DNA lesions (via comet assay) in the same exposed animals. Rats were divided into six groups as follows: (Group I) received water; (Group II) received MeHg (100 mu g/day); (Group III) received Se (2 mg/L drinking water); (Group IV) received Se (6 mg/L drinking water); (Group V) received MeHg (100 mu g/day) and Se (2 mg/L drinking water); (Group VI) received MeHg (100 mu g/day) and Se (6 mg/L drinking water). Total treatment time was 100 days. GSH-Px activity was determined spectrophotometrically and DNA damage was determined by comet assay. Mean GSH-Px activity in groups I, II, III, IV, V and VI were, respectively: 40.19 +/- A 17.21; 23.63 +/- A 6.04; 42.64 +/- A 5.70; 38.50 +/- A 7.15; 34.54 +/- A 6.18 and 41.39 +/- A 11.67 nmolNADPH/min/gHb. DNA damage was represented by a mean score from 0 to 300; the results for groups I, II, III, IV, V and VI were, respectively: 6.87 +/- A 3.27; 124.12 +/- A 13.74; 10.62 +/- A 3.81; 13.25 +/- A 1.76; 86.87 +/- A 11.95 and 76.25 +/- A 7.48. There was a significant inhibition of GSH-Px activity in group II compared with group I (P < 0.05). Groups V and VI did not show a difference in enzyme activity compared with groups III and IV, showing the possible protective action of Se. Comet assay presented a significant difference in DNA migration between group II and group I (P < 0.0001). Groups V and VI showed a significant reduction in MeHg-induced genotoxicity (P < 0.001) when compared with group II. A negative correlation (r = -0.559, P < 0.05) was found between GSH-Px activity and DNA lesion, showing that the greater the DNA damage, the lower the GSH-Px activity. Our findings demonstrated the oxidative and genotoxic properties of MeHg, even at low doses. Moreover, Se co-administration reestablished GSH-Px activity and reduced DNA damage.

Desenvolvimento neurológico e resposta apendicular ao movimento do tronco de crianças prematuras, durante o primeiro ano de vida

A ausência de estudos de acompanhamento do desenvolvimento neurológico de crianças nascidas prematuras, em nosso meio, motivou a realização desta pesquisa. Com o intuito de estabelecer marcos desse desenvolvimento e de verificar as respostas apendiculares ao movimento do tronco e a uniformidade entre as funções motoras, perceptivas e de linguagem, foram avaliados prematuros aos 3, 6, 9 e 12 meses de idade corrigida, em um estudo de coorte não controlado, com enfoque prognóstico. As respostas apendiculares ao movimento do tronco foram estudadas por meio das reações de paraquedismo e de apoio lateral. A amostra foi constituída de 40 recém-nascidos (RN) prematuros, nascidos no Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, que foram acompanhados no ambulatório do hospital aos 3, 6, 9 e 12 meses de idade corrigida. Foram incluídos no estudo RN com idade gestacional até 36 semanas e 6 dias, com 2.000g ou menos de peso no nascimento. Foram excluídos os RN com índices de Apgar <7 no 5o minuto, hemorragia cerebral, crises convulsivas, alterações no estado de consciência, infecção do sistema nervoso central (SNC), infecções congênitas, síndromes genéticas e intoxicações pré-natais. Também foram excluídos os RN que apresentaram intercorrências capazes de interferir no desenvolvimento neurológico e os que apresentaram exame neurológico alterado. As reações de paraquedismo e de apoio lateral estavam ambas presentes em 8,1% das crianças aos 6 meses de idade corrigida. Aos 9 meses de idade corrigida, a reação de paraquedismo estava presente em 87% das crianças e a reação de apoio lateral, em 90%. Aos 12 meses de idade corrigida, 100% dos casos apresentaram as reações posturais. Estes resultados não foram semelhantes aos encontrados em RN de termo de 6 e 9 meses de idade. O desenvolvimento do RN prematuro foi uniforme em relação às funções perceptivas e de linguagem para as idades corrigidas de 3, 6, 9 e 12 meses de idade corrigida. O desenvolvimento do equilíbrio estático foi o aspecto motor em desacordo com o esperado para cada idade corrigida. A evolução dos reflexos primitivos coincidiu com o esperado para cada idade corrigida; e o reflexo cutâneo-plantar se tornou flexor simultaneamente ao desaparecimento da preensão plantar.

Efeitos da mal nutrição protéica sobre o metabolismo da glicina em cerebelo de ratos durante o seu desenvolvimento

Malnutrition is a worldwide problem affecting millions of unborn and young children during the most vulnerable stages of brain development (1). All restriction of protein during the perinatal period of life can alter the development of mammalian fetus and have marked repercussions on development of the Central Nervous System (CNS). The brain is vulnerable to protein malnutrition with altered morphologic and biochemical maturation, leading to impaired functions. The focus of this study is to investigate [U-14C]glycine metabolism in malnourished rats submitted to pre- and postnatal protein deprivation (diet: 8% protein with addition and without addition of L-methionine) on glycine metabolism of rats (normonourished group: 25% protein). It was observed that protein malnutrition alters oxidation to CO2, conversion to lipids and protein synthesis from [U-14C]glycine in cerebellum of malnourished rats without addition of L-methionine on a diet at 7 and 21 days of postnatal life. Our results also indicate that protein malnutrition causes a retardation in the normally ordered progression of brain development, and the malnourished groups have smaller cells, reduction in cell numbers and smaller cerebellar weight comparing to the control group.

Lateralização cerebral de funções e sua implicação para a cognição humana: do paradigma do duplo sistema funcional de processamento a um enfoque de sistema complexo

Este trabalho examina a lateralização cerebral de funções e sua implicação para a cognição humana ao nível da intersecção entre a neuropsicologia clinica e a psicologia cognitiva de base informacional. A primeira parte do trabalho e dedicada a descrição e análise critica da conformação contemporânea desta área de investigação neuropsicológica, com a ênfase posta na metateoria e teorias predominantes, a par do sistema conceitual utilizado nas atividades de pesquisa desenvolvidas na área. Inicialmente, a abordagem neuropsicológica do problema da lateralização cerebral examinada no que concerne às suas articulações com os métodos e técnicas que se mostraram mais importantes para a configuração atual desta área de investigação, sob um enfoque histórico. Em continuidade, a análise dirigida às questões mais fundamentais nas quais se tem desdobrado o problema da assimetria funcional inter-hemisférica, representadas pelas especializações funcionais dos hemisférios cerebrais, pela atividade conjunta dos hemisférios e pelas relações entre diferenças individuais na lateralização cerebral e desempenho cognitivo. Neste contexto são sublinhadas as dificuldades e inconsistências relacionadas à restritividade do enfoque prevalente, avaliado como expressão de uma concepção neuropsicológica excessivamente simplificadora do problema compreendido pelas relações entre o cérebro e a cognição humanos. O trabalho apresenta, em sua segunda parte, uma tentativa de desenvolvimento de um enfoque sistêmico, na direção da complexidade, para o problema da lateralização cerebral de funções. Trata-se de um desenvolvimento que parte de uma descentração da dimensão lateral do sistema nervoso e resulta em uma subsunção deste problema à uma perspectiva mais global concernente à organização cerebral de funções e aos fundamentos para a construção teórica na neuropsicologia. Segue-se um exame das implicações deste enfoque para a questão das relações entre variações inter-individuais na lateralização cerebral de funções e habilidades cognitivas que se direciona para uma minimização do significado que tem sido atribuído a lateralizarão para o funcionamento cerebral e a cognição humanos. O trabalho apresenta, finalmente, um estudo empírico referente às relações entre variações inter-individuais normais de lateralizarão cerebral ,preferência manipulatória e sua história familiar e desempenho cognitivo, onde são comparados os desempenhos de destros com história familiar de sinistralidade negativa e de canhotos com esta história positiva no Teste WAIS. Os resultados obtidos mostram uma inequívoca semelhança nos desempenhos dos dois grupos em todas as escalas do WAIS. Estes resultados são discutidos principalmente no que tange à existência ou não de correspondências diretas entre variações normais nas representações das funções ao longo da dimensão lateral do sistema nervoso, preferência manipulatória e habilidades cognitivas. A conclusão final conforma-se como um sumário integrativo dos principais aspectos das conclusões atingidas no curso do trabalho.

Motivação: um enfoque neurofisiológico

Não esquecendo toda uma conotação SOCial que está implicante ligada à motivação, o presente trabalho visa estudar em bases neurofisiológicas. Sabemos que a motivação ainda não possui seu constructo solidificado. Possui uma variabilidade de entretenimento da escola psicológica para escolas psicológicas, de pesquisador para pesquisador, de cultura para cultura, de tempo para tempo.... Este trabalho não tem um fim reducionista em apenas ver a motivação com bases neurofisiológicas. Seu objetivo é clarificar, se possível, um campo discutível. Podemos ver apesar dos vários modos de encarar a motivação como processo social, seu modo de se dar, fisiologicamente, poderá ser mais delimitado. Qualquer que seja a conceituação dada a motivação, ela possui um mecanismo fisiológico interno, inegável. Será neste campo que dedicar-me-ei. O que se dá no sistema nervoso quando um ser vivo é motivado? Será que o mecanismo fisiológico da motivação difere de ser para ser? Ou será diferente apenas de espécie para espécie? Iniciaremos nosso trabalho vendo as diferentes visões de motivação e como os cientistas a encaram. Verificamos que a preocupação dada desde muito em estabelecer um ponto de partida mais operacional para p desenvolvimento da fisiologia em cases científicas. Para isto, muito contribuíram FUNVESTEIN, CANNON, SHERRINGTON, MAGNUN e MORUZZI, SECHENOV, LASHLEY e outros. Entretanto, inicialmente esta preocupação era maior pelas manifestações viscerais e somáticas do comportamento. Só com o desenvolvimento das pesquisas sobre Hipotálamo e o Sistema Límbico foi que se conseguiu, realmente, em campo melhor para as pesquisas sobre motivação. Não podemos esquecer as contribuições de SKINNER e PAVLON sobre recompensa, as de BANDURA com a variável – Modelação do Comportamento, de BUTTLER e NISSEN com a descrição do comportamento da curiosidade exploratória, as de HEBB sobre os efeitos da estimulação sensorial restrita, as de JAMES OLDS sobre a estimulação elétrica. Estudaremos as interpretações teóricas recentes com CANON, LASHLEY, BEACH, MORGAN, LORENS, DEUTSCH, LINDSLEY, GROSSMAN. Teceremos considerações anatômicas, histológicas, fisiológicas, conexões e funções no estudo do Sistema Límbico e seus componentes. Nossa maior preocupação serpa em tentar explicar os mecanismos motivacionais na sua relação com o Sistema Nervoso. Estudaremos motivações sexual, de forma, de sede, de dor, maternal e paternal, de defesa, de ataque ou dominação e como elas estão relacionadas no sistema nervoso. Para tal apresentamos experiências realizadas sobre estimulação sensorial, motivação e emoção, e as experiências de OLDS sobre fatores motivacionais obtidos através de estimulações ou ablações de determinadas áreas do Sistema Límbico. Espero que, através desta dissertação, tenha podido contribuir um pouco para o estudo de tão vasto campo.