893 resultados para Early Middle Ages


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Descripción de ciertos rasgos geológicos que amenazan el patrimonio religioso rupestre español. Rock sanctuaries are a historical heritage not as well-known as other religious constructions, due to their usual recondite location and abandoned condition. Spain has a large number of examples, mostly excavated during the Early Middle Age or even before. Fortunately, some of them are used on present worship, but the majority of these ancient shrines have suffered of severe damage through time, mostly due to common geological patterns. Some others threaten to collapse soon unless urgent remedial improvement is applied. Some examples at different locations are shown, reviewing their problems, which involve weathering, major rock cracks, soft rock pillars and others related to the defective site where they were located.

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Una de las aplicaciones más interesantes de las tecnologías de Realidad Acústica Virtual es la posibilidad de recuperar el patrimonio cultural del sonido de los recintos históricos que se han perdido o cuyas características se han modificado a lo largo de los siglos. En este trabajo, las tecnologías de realidad acústica virtual se utilizan para tratar de reconstruir virtualmente el sonido producido en las actividades litúrgicas del antiguo rito hispánico. Bajo este nombre se conoce a la liturgia que celebraban los cristianos de la península ibérica hasta su prohibición, en favor del culto romano, a mediados del siglo XI. El rito hispánico -también conocido como rito visigótico-mozárabe- es una de las manifestaciones culturales más interesantes de la Alta Edad Media en occidente. Se trata de un patrimonio cultural desaparecido, tanto desde el punto de vista de las señales sonoras que lo integraban -ya que la mayoría de las melodías que conformaban el rito se han perdido- como desde el punto de vista de los espacios en los que se desarrollaba, debido a que las iglesias conservadas de la época han experimentado modificaciones a lo largo de los siglos que alteran sus condiciones acústicas con respecto a las que tenían en el periodo de vigencia de esta liturgia. Para llevar a cabo este proyecto, se han realizado modelos acústicos digitales de un grupo representativo de iglesias prerrománicas de la Península Ibérica en su estado primitivo. Se ha procurado que las iglesias seleccionadas representen la variedad de comportamientos acústicos esperables en este tipo de edificios. Con este objetivo, se han elegido cinco iglesias prerrománicas que presentan diferencias sustanciales en los parámetros que, a priori, van a influir en mayor manera a su comportamiento acústico: el volumen del recinto, la forma de la planta y el tipo de cubierta. El proceso de creación de los modelos acústicos digitales de las iglesias se ha dividido en dos fases: en la primera se han creado modelos de los edificios en su estado actual, que se han validado a partir de los datos obtenidos en mediciones acústicas realizadas in situ; a partir de los modelos validados de las iglesias en su estado actual, en la segunda fase se han generado los modelos acústicos digitales correspondientes al estado primitivo de las mismas, modificando los modelos anteriores de acuerdo con las hipótesis de reconstrucción propuestas en las investigaciones arqueológicas más recientes. Se han realizado grabaciones en cámara anecoica de una serie de piezas del repertorio original del canto mozárabe. Las grabaciones se han llevado a cabo con un array esférico compuesto por 32 micrófonos, con objeto de obtener información sobre la directividad de la emisión sonora de los cantantes, que se aplicará en las auralizaciones. Finalmente, se han realizado diversas auralizaciones, teniendo en cuenta diferentes configuraciones litúrgicas que eran usuales en este rito. ABSTRACT One of the most interesting applications of the Acoustic Virtual Reality technologies is the possibility to recover the cultural heritage of the sound of the historical sites that have been lost or whose characteristics have been modified through time. In this work, Acoustic Virtual Reality technologies are used to try to reconstruct virtually the sound produced in the liturgical activities of the Hispanic Rite. This is the name given to the liturgy celebrated by Christians of the Iberian Peninsula prior to the introduction of the Roman cult in the mid-eleventh century. The Hispanic Rite (also known as Visigothic or Mozarabic rite) is one of the most interesting cultural manifestations of the Middle Ages. It is a lost cultural heritage, both from the point of view of the sound signals that were used since the majority of the melodies that conformed the rite have been lost, and from the point of view of the spaces in which this liturgy was celebrated, because the churches preserved from that era have changed over the centuries altering its acoustic conditions respect to which they were in the period in which this liturgy was in effect. To carry out this project, acoustic models of a representative group of the pre-Romanesque churches in the Iberian Peninsula have been made in his primitive state. To select the sample of buildings to study, efforts have been made to ensure that the selected churches were representative of the range of expected acoustic behaviors in this type of buildings. Five churches have been selected, showing differences in the parameters that have the greatest influence on their acoustic behavior: the enclosure volume, the shape of the floor plan and the type of roof. The process of creating digital acoustic models of the churches has been divided into two phases. In the first phase acoustic models of the churches in its current state have been created. These models have been validated with the data obtained from in situ acoustic measurements. From the validated models of churches in its current state, in the second phase, changes in the acoustic models have been performed in order to represent the primitive state of the churches, according to the historical reconstruction hypothesis that have been proposed in the most recent archaeological investigations. Anechoic recordings of a series of pieces of the original Mozarabic Chant repertoire have been recorded. The recordings were made with a spherical array composed of 32 microphones, in order to obtain information on the directivity of the sound emission of the singers. These directivity data will be used to simulate the directional radiation of the sound sources in the auralizations. Finally, auralizations were produced corresponding to different liturgical configurations which were common in this rite.

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Plaza Navona representa una de las visitas obligadas de Roma, pero solo algunos advertirán en ella la presencia española en la sala de exposiciones del Instituto Cervantes o en la inmediata Libreria Española. Todavía serán menos los que se percatarán de la huella española dejada en aquella iglesia de fachada anónima situada, en el extremo sur de la plaza: la antigua iglesia de Santiago de los Españoles. La presente tesis pretende, utilizando el dibujo como guía, herramienta y fin del proceso de análisis y estudio, reconstruir el proceso de conformación y construcción de la que fue iglesia española principal, cuya fundación hace patente el destacado papel jugado por la “nación” castellana en Roma durante la Edad Media; y en torno a la que se aglutinaron las actividades religiosas, diplomáticas y financieras de los castellanos que vivieron en la actual capital italiana. Se intentará recrear en el tiempo la que es hoy la iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Sagrado Corazón, sometiéndola a una restitución gráfica disciplinada, homogénea y objetiva en la medida de lo posible de las varias etapas que la han caracterizadas, desde su fundación hasta cuando en 1878 España se deshizo de ella, ya en ruina, vendiéndola. Como nos comenta Gaetano Moroni, de todas las comunidades nacionales que se encontraban en Roma la española parece ser efectivamente una de las más rica y prestigiosa. Aunque lo que no cuenta Moroni no haya sido todavía demostrado, dicho enunciado resulta de todas formas interesante puesto que pone el acento sobre el hecho de que ya desde el siglo X parece ser habitual de ocupar y reutilizar antiguas ruinas, usándolas como base para la construcción de hospitales para los peregrinos. Esta operación se hizo particularmente frecuente sobre todo antes del Gran Jubileo de 1450: de hecho desde la primera mitad del Quattrocento se fundan distintas iglesias y hospitales nacionales para acoger y prestar una adecuada asistencia y socorro a los innumerables peregrinos que llegaban a la ciudad, edificios que se van construyendo sobre los restos de antiguos edificios de época romana. Prueba de ello es en efecto la fundación originaria de la iglesia y hospital de los Españoles que, parte del conjunto de edificios que compone la Plaza Navona, situada en el corazón de Campo Marzio y cuya posición y forma corresponden a la del antiguo Estadio de Domiciano, y que ahora es en sus dimensiones, en su imagen arquitectónica y en su consistencia material, el resultado de la definición proyectual y de las transformaciones que se llevaron a cabo sobre lo que quedaba del antiguo templo español del siglo XV, entre finales del ‘800 y los años 30 del siglo XX . Transformaciones devastadoras, huellas grabadas o canceladas que encuentran una justificación en los acontecimientos históricos reflejados en el patrimonio urbano. El análisis de todas las fuentes permite trazar, si no la totalidad, buena parte de las modificaciones que la antigua iglesia de Santiago ha sufrido. La construcción del templo se puede dividir en tres momentos decisivos: una primera etapa de fundación en 1450-1478 en la que la iglesia tenía fachada y entrada en via de la Sapienza, hoy Corso Rinascimento; una segunda de significativa ampliación hacia Plaza Navona con una nueva fachada monumental hacia ese espacio público en 1496-1500; y una última importante ampliación entre 1525-1526, llevada a cabo por el arquitecto Antonio da Sangallo el Joven. Tras la intensa vida del templo, en el siglo XVIII, éste cae en ruina y finalmente es vendido en 1878 a la orden de los misioneros franceses de Nuestra Señora del Sagrado Corazón que la reconvierten en iglesia reformando totalmente el conjunto en 1881, según proyecto de Luca Carimini. En 1936, en plena fase de rectificación de trazados urbanos por obra del régimen fascista, según proyecto de Arnaldo Foschini, se mutila su extremidad hacia vía de la Sapienza dejando su estado tal y como se contempla en la actualidad. ABSTRACT The objective of this thesis is the reconstruction of the design and edification process -using drawings and sketches as a guide, tool and the end of the analytical process- of a church which was once the preeminent Spanish church in medieval Rome, known today as Nostra Signora del Sacro Cuore (Our Lady of the Sacred Heart). The founding of this church illustrates the important role held by the Castillian “nation” in Rome during the Middle Ages. It was the focal point of all the religious, diplomatic and economic activities of the Castillian community residing in today’s Italian capital. The aim of this proyect is a recreation the church in time by submitting it to a disciplined, homogenous and objective graphic restitution of the various stages most characteristic the temple, starting from its foundation until 1878 when, in a state of ruins, the church was finally sold off by Spain. Gaetano Moroni once commented that of all the international communities found in Rome, the Spanish community seemed to be one of the wealthiest and most prestigious. Such a statement proves interesting as it emphasizes that starting in the 10th century we see there was a widespread custom of occupying and reusing old ruins for use as the bases of new constructions of hospitals for pilgrims. This custom became especially frequent just before the Jubilee Year of 1450: in fact, in the first half of the Quattrocento we see the founding of many different national churches and hospitals which provided shelter and care to the countless pilgrims arriving in the city, buildings which were constructed on top of the ruins of ancient buildings left over from Roman times. Proof of this is the original foundation of the Spanish church and hospital forming part of the Piazza Navona, built upon and following the outline of the Stadium of Domitian, in the heart of Campo Marzio. Now, in its dimensions, its architectural image and its material substance, it represents the predominant result of the planning definitions and the transformations which affected the old 15th-century Spanish temple. Ocurring between the end of the 19th century and the 1930s, the transformations were devastating, erasing original peculiarities and engraving new ones, transformations made justifiable by the historical events reflected in its urban environs. Analyzing all sources allows us to trace, even if not in entirety, still a sizeable portion of the modifications undergone by the old Church of Saint James. The construction of the temple can be divided into three decisive moments: its foundation, from 1450 to 1478, when the church’s façade and main door looked out on to the Via della Sapienza, today’s central avenue of Corso del Rinascimento; the second stage being a major expansion towards the Piazza Navona (1496-1500) with a new, monumental façade facing the public space; and the third was the last significant expansion, carried out from 1525 to 1526 by the architect Antonio da Sangallo the Younger. Despite an intense and bustling life during the Modern Age, in the 18th century the church began to fall into ruin and was finally sold in 1878 to the order of French missionaries of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart, who reconverted it into a church and completely renovated the structure in 1881 in a project supervised by Luca Carimini. In 1936, the corrective urban redesign of Rome carried out by the fascist regime and implemented by Arnaldo Foschini mutilated the part bordering Via della Sapienza, leaving it as we see it today.

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The European chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is a multipurpose species that has been widely cultivated around the Mediterranean basin since ancient times. New varieties were brought to the Iberian Peninsula during the Roman Empire, which coexist since then with native populations that survived the last glaciation. The relevance of chestnut cultivation has being steadily growing since the Middle Ages, until the rural decline of the past century put a stop to this trend. Forest fires and diseases were also major factors. Chestnut cultivation is gaining momentum again due to its economic (wood, fruits) and ecologic relevance, and represents currently an important asset in many rural areas of Europe. In this Thesis we apply different molecular tools to help improve current management strategies. For this study we have chosen El Bierzo (Castile and Leon, NW Spain), which has a centenary tradition of chestnut cultivation and management, and also presents several unique features from a genetic perspective (next paragraph). Moreover, its nuts are widely appreciated in Spain and abroad for their organoleptic properties. We have focused our experimental work on two major problems faced by breeders and the industry: the lack of a fine-grained genetic characterization and the need for new strategies to control blight disease. To characterize with sufficient detail the genetic diversity and structure of El Bierzo orchards, we analyzed DNA from 169 trees grafted for nut production covering the entire region. We also analyzed 62 nuts from all traditional varieties. El Bierzo constitutes an outstanding scenario to study chestnut genetics and the influence of human management because: (i) it is located at one extreme of the distribution area; (ii) it is a major glacial refuge for the native species; (iii) it has a long tradition of human management (since Roman times, at least); and (iv) its geographical setting ensures an unusual degree of genetic isolation. Thirteen microsatellite markers provided enough informativeness and discrimination power to genotype at the individual level. Together with an unexpected level of genetic variability, we found evidence of genetic structure, with three major gene pools giving rise to the current population. High levels of genetic differentiation between groups supported this organization. Interestingly, genetic structure does not match with spatial boundaries, suggesting that the exchange of material and cultivation practices have strongly influenced natural gene flow. The microsatellite markers selected for this study were also used to classify a set of 62 samples belonging to all traditional varieties. We identified several cases of synonymies and homonymies, evidencing the need to substitute traditional classification systems with new tools for genetic profiling. Management and conservation strategies should also benefit from these tools. The avenue of high-throughput sequencing technologies, combined with the development of bioinformatics tools, have paved the way to study transcriptomes without the need for a reference genome. We took advantage of RNA sequencing and de novo assembly tools to determine the transcriptional landscape of chestnut in response to blight disease. In addition, we have selected a set of candidate genes with high potential for developing resistant varieties via genetic engineering. Our results evidenced a deep transcriptional reprogramming upon fungal infection. The plant hormones ET and JA appear to orchestrate the defensive response. Interestingly, our results also suggest a role for auxins in modulating such response. Many transcription factors were identified in this work that interact with promoters of genes involved in disease resistance. Among these genes, we have conducted a functional characterization of a two major thaumatin-like proteins (TLP) that belongs to the PR5 family. Two genes encoding chestnut cotyledon TLPs have been previously characterized, termed CsTL1 and CsTL2. We substantiate here their protective role against blight disease for the first time, including in silico, in vitro and in vivo evidence. The synergy between TLPs and other antifungal proteins, particularly endo-p-1,3-glucanases, bolsters their interest for future control strategies based on biotechnological approaches.

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In 2015, it will be thirty years since Spanish Historic Heritage Law from 1985 was approved. The results after three decades under this law are necessarily positive and witness how the complex autonomous regional legislation has been promoted, guided and organized in this Heritage field. In addition, the law enforcement has brought into the scene how the numerous public and private initiatives involved in caring, managing, protecting and restoring our cultural heritage have been channeled and regulated, as well as monitoring the impact these initiatives produce on urban archaeology. During this long period of Spanish recent history, cultural heritage -understood as an important development tool, especially when related to cultural tourism- has succeeded in channeling resources for developing the historical research projects, both documental and archaeological, that the Spanish monumental urban ensembles were requiring. In this context, the case of the city of Madrid is a clear example of the significant development that urban Historical Archaeology has experienced in Spain over the last thirty years, especially when dealing with the study of the Middle Ages (8th to 15th centuries) and the Modern Age (16th to 18th centuries). Given the number of interventions and the important results obtained by many of them, Madrid urban archaeology is an extraordinary example of the consequences of implementing new management models, changing criteria and operating procedures, and also, of course, of the conflicts and debates raised regarding heritage, as well as the importance these interventions have implied, which is the main aim of this work.

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La Tesis estudia un tipo de refugio ganadero de la Cuenca Alta del río Tajo, conocidos como chozones. Singular arquitectura ligada a la ganadería extensiva ovina que servía de abrigo al ganado durante la noche invernal y umbráculo en estío. Construcciones de muros bajos de mampuesto colocados a hueso de planta circular o rectangular, levantadas alrededor de una estructura leñosa o un árbol en posición de vida que soportan una cubierta de ramas de la poda de la sabina. Son cientos diseminados por toda la región, si bien concentrados en la Sesma del sabinar, una de las cuatro divisiones históricas del Señorío de Molina. La decadencia de la ganadería en la comarca, sumada a otras causas de sociales y económicas, ha llevado a que estén cada vez en peor estado de conservación; con todo lo que ello supone de pérdida de una memoria histórica inseparable del paisaje del que son parte. Mi primera aproximación a estos refugios fue una oferta que aceptó el equipo de dirección del Parque Natural del Alto Tajo para catalogar los que se encontraban en su área de protección, un paisaje de Alto Valor Natural donde la ganadería ha sido el sustento tradicional. Tras terminar el inventario se produjo el gran incendio en Riba de Saélices (2005). Además de calcinar a 11 retenes voluntarios, quemó parte de las chozones inventariados. Tomé entonces consciencia de la fragilidad de este patrimonio popular y del valor que cobraba el trabajo realizado, pues en muchos casos era el único testimonio que había de los chozones desaparecidos. De ahí nació esta investigación. Al comienzo el enfoque analítico fue eminentemente disciplinar, como recoge la primera parte del título de la tesis: arquitectura y construcción. Pronto comprendí que este enfoque no era suficiente para entender las preguntas dejadas abierta por el análisis espacial, tales como su origen, razón de ser, función social, etc. Profundizando en estos temas la investigación fue haciéndose más amplia y transversal, hasta llegar a lo indicado en la segunda parte del título: paisaje y territorio. En síntesis, la tesis pasó del análisis de un objeto en sí a su entendimiento como parte de una sociedad y un paisaje del que es indisoluble. Para lograr estos objetivos transversales, los refugios ganaderos se estudiaron considerando desde sus aspectos geográficos e históricos a los propios de la arquitectura y del sistema ganadero que acoge. A cada enfoque se dedica un capítulo de la Tesis, lo que nos obligó a utilizar distintas metodologías de análisis: de un amplio trabajo de campo para catalogar y levantar los casi un centenar de chozones inventariados a la búsqueda de información documental en archivos históricos. Por el carácter del estudio fue también fundamental la revisión del material etnográfico de la zona, así como las entrevistas con vecinos y los pocos pastores que quedaban en los municipios estudiados. Los resultados de la Tesis muestran que los refugios ganaderos son construcciones con una serie de valores de distinto tipo. Entre ellos destacaría: (a) ambientales, porque son arquitecturas integradas en el medio ambiente, con empleo de materiales del territorio y adaptación a sus condiciones físicas; (b) históricos, porque son testimonio de un patrimonio arquitectónico que al menos desde la Edad Media se mantiene sin apenas modificaciones; (c) etnográficos, porque son un elemento arquitectónico con usos estrechamente ligados a la cultura tradicional, ganadera y rural de la cuenca del Alto Tajo. Tan clara es la relación entre estos tres aspectos que no es exagerado afirmar que desde el comienzo hasta su final, pasando por las distintas actividades cotidianas, la vida de los habitantes de la comarca giraba en torno al patrimonio vernáculo estudiado. Por ello, entendemos que todos estos elementos son lo suficientemente relevantes como para intentar evitar su destrucción, fomentar una reutilización que contribuya a un desarrollo sostenible de este singular paisaje etnológico. ABSTRACT My first approach to these refugees was commissioned by the management of the Alto Tajo Natural Park to catalog those who were in their protection area, a landscape of high natural value where livestock has been the traditional livelihood. After completing the inventory came the great fire in Riba de Saelices (2005). Besides calcine 11 firefighters, burned many of these popular architectures. I took then awareness of the fragility of this vernacular heritage and the value of the work charged, since in many cases it was the only witness who had disappeared from the shelters. At that time, this research was born. At the begging our study was eminently from the point of view of our discipline, as it picks up the first part of the title of the Thesis: architecture and construction. Soon I realized that this approach was not sufficient to understand the questions left open by the spatial analysis, such as its origin, purpose, social function, etc. By studying topics, my research become to be more comprehensive and transversal, up to coming to the indicated in the second part of the title: landscape and territory. In synthesis, the Thesis went on from the analysis of an object in itself to its understanding like part of a society and a landscape of which it is indissoluble. To achieve these cross-cutting objectives, livestock shelters were studied considering from its geographic and historic aspects to this relating to his architecture own the livestock system to which they belong. To each approach we devoted a chapter of the Thesis, which forced us to use different methodologies of analysis: an extensive field work in cataloguing and lift the nearly a hundred chozones inventoried to the search of documentary information in historical archives. By the nature of the study, the review of the ethnographic material in the area was also essential, as well as interviews with neighbors and the few remaining shepherds in the municipalities studied. The results of our Thesis show that livestock shelters are constructions with a series of values of different types. Among them I would highlight three: (a) environmental, because they are architectures integrated in the territory, with the use of materials of the location and adapted to their physical conditions; (b) historical, because they are testimony of an architectural heritage that at least since the Middle Ages remains with little modifications; (c) ethnographic, because they are architectural elements closely linked to livestock, rural and traditional culture of the Alto Tajo basin. So clear is the relationship between these three aspects, that is not an exaggeration to say that from the beginning until the end, passing through the various daily activities, the life of the inhabitants of the region was in completed connection with the studied vernacular heritage. For it, we understand that all these elements are relevant enough to try to prevent their destruction and promote a recycling that contributes to a sustainable development of this unique ethnological landscape.

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As ideias políticas e filosóficas que influenciaram a criação da regra da legalidade penal e do princípio da ofensividade têm origem no Iluminismo. Principalmente durante a Idade Média e o Antigo Regime, confundia-se crime com pecado e as pessoas podiam ser punidas por mero capricho do soberano, sem que existisse lei. As arbitrariedades eram gritantes. A finalidade de ambas as teorias surgidas no período da Ilustração, portanto ao pregarem que era necessária a existência de lei prévia para que alguém fosse punido (regra da legalidade) e que o crime pressupunha uma lesão a direito ou bem jurídico de terceiro (princípio da ofensividade) , era a mesma: limitar o poder punitivo. No entanto, a regra da legalidade penal foi muito mais absorvida pelo discurso dogmático-jurídico do que o princípio da ofensividade, sendo oportuno, pois, analisar as razões pelas quais isso ocorreu. Algumas delas serão analisadas neste estudo como, por exemplo, a ausência de previsão explícita desse princípio nas Constituições, a suposta incompatibilidade desse princípio com a separação de poderes e com a própria regra da legalidade penal e a insegurança jurídica que a aplicação de princípios poderia gerar. Além disso, há um fator político de destaque: a consolidação da burguesia exigia a imposição de limites formais ao poder estatal, mas não limites materiais. Outro fator importante foi o advento do positivismo criminológico, no final do século XIX, que, ao confundir crime com doença, retornou ao paradigma do direito penal do autor que havia vigorado na Idade Média. Finalmente, para demonstrar o que impediu a consolidação do princípio da ofensividade especificamente no Brasil, será analisada a influência da doutrina europeia na dogmática nacional.

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The knowledge about the figure of royal confessor has been, until recent times, very limited for the period of medieval Castile. A lot of studies have been done for Modern Age, when the institution of the kinǵs confessor played an important role in the Court of the Hispanic Crown. It is evident that this figure didńt appear ex nihilo in the Sixteenth Century and there existed some origins. Many historians mentioned some medieval confessors in their studies about any other subjects. Actually, it was not clear if those clerics could be properly considered as confessors. Our first aim has been to find all the references which exist in the sources and bibliography about kinǵs confessors in the Middle Ages and verify their nature as confessors. We fixed the beginning of the period of study with the reign of Enrique II, and its end with the death of Isabel I in 1504. The main reason is the fact that both sovereigns are the first and last monarchs of Trastamara dinasty, a very significant period in the origin of Modern State in Castile. The Church was an essential element in this process, on account of the service which many clerics enlisted to the Crown in different tasks (diplomacy, bureaucracy, Counsel and Counselling, etc.) and their ideological support to this endeavour. In this context, the royal confessor could perform an important work as personal advisor and a loyal subject to the person of the king in so many activities. This is well-known for Modern Age and also fort the reign of transition between this period and the precedent: the period of Catholic Kings. But it isńt for the times backwards...

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Las fuentes del Derecho español se han ocupado a lo largo del tiempo, y sin solución de continuidad, de la institución del arbitraje en el marco de la administración de justicia. El arbitraje, avenencia o conciliación son términos que poseen un significado singular en los sistemas u ordenamientos jurídicos que han connotado la Historia del Derecho. El Derecho andalusí se ocupó de la institución del arbitraje por dos razones fundamentales. La primera razón de este interés obedecía a su importancia como medio eficaz y rápido para solventar diferencias o conflictos entre partes. La segunda razón se debía a las particularidades que esta modalidad de resolución presentó respecto a la ortodoxia malekí. Este trabajo analiza los elementos y características del arbitraje y la avenencia con el fin de trazar una visión más completa de la institución, que desde la Edad Media fue medio habitual para la solución de situaciones controvertidas entre cristianos y musulmanes.

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The location of the La Galite Archipelago on the Internal/External Zones of the Maghrebian Chain holds strong interest for the reconstruction of the geodynamic evolution of the Mesomediterranean Microplate-Africa Plate Boundary Zone. New stratigraphic and petrographic data on sedimentary successions intruded upon by plutonic rocks enabled a better definition of the palaeogeographic and palaeotectonic evolutionary model of the area during the early-middle Miocene. The lower Miocene sedimentary units (La Galite Flysch and Numidian-like Flysch) belong to the Mauritanian (internal) and Massylian (external) sub-Domains of the Maghrebian Chain, respectively. These deposits are related to a typical syn-orogenic deposition in the Maghrebian Flysch Basin Domain, successively backthrusted above the internal units. The backthrusting age is post-Burdigalian (probably Langhian-Serravallian) and the compressional phase represents the last stage in the building of the accretionary wedge of the Maghrebian orogen. These flysch units may be co-relatable to the similar well-known formations along the Maghrebian and Betic Chains. The emplacement of potassic peraluminous magmatism, caused local metamorphism in the Late Serravallian-Early Tortonian (14–10 Ma), after the last compressional phase (backthrusting), during an extensional tectonic event. This extensional phase is probably due to the opening of a slab break-off in the deep subduction system. La Galite Archipelago represents a portion of the Maghrebian Flysch Basin tectonically emplaced above the southern margin of the “Mesomediterranean Microplate” which separated the Piemontese-Ligurian Ocean from a southern oceanic branch of the Tethys (i.e. the Maghrebian Flysch Basin). The possible presence of an imbricate thrust system between La Galite Archipelago and northern Tunisia may be useful to exclude the petroleum exploration from the deformed sectors of the offshore area considered.

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Este artículo ofrece una aproximación panorámica a la práctica del patronazgo literario en Inglaterra desde el s. VII al XIV. Durante el período anglosajón las relaciones de patronazgo fueron principalmente de dos tipos: (1) un poeta o scop que quedaba vinculado a una corte (p. ej. Déor) y (2) un intérprete o gleoman que desarrollaba su actividad no creativa de forma itinerante ante públicos diversos (p. ej. Wídsid). Caso aparte es el del pastor Cadmon, quien por intervención divina se convirtió en poeta bíblico y fue acogido en un monasterio. Tras la conquista normanda se introdujo un modelo de patronazgo aristocrático que favoreció la aparición de la figura del autor (p. ej. Wace) que componía sus obras en anglonormando, mientras el inglés era usado por juglares anónimos para deleite de las clases populares. La literatura en lengua inglesa no asistiría a la aparición de sus primeros autores (p. ej. Chaucer y Gower) hasta el siglo XIV, gracias en parte al patronazgo del rey Ricardo II.

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Este artículo ofrece un análisis de datos históricos sobre los intérpretes de embajadas en la corte del califa de Córdoba Al-Ḥakam II (961-976). El objetivo principal es caracterizar, en la medida de lo posible, las funciones de los intérpretes en esa época. Entre los temas tratados en este estudio se destacan la relación entre los intérpretes y el monarca, las lenguas traducidas en una sociedad plurilingüe y diglósica, las modalidades de interpretación utilizadas, el perfil de los intérpretes –no solo como mediadores orales sino también como traductores de documentos oficiales–, y, por fin, su procedencia social y cultural, lo que nos daría una idea de su competencia traductora.

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En la actualidad son muy pocos los usos vigentes. Aunque los dátiles son la materia utilizada con mayor frecuencia, también se han empleado la savia, el polen y el cogollo tierno o palmito. Los dátiles de Phoenix dactylifera se utilizaron como analgésico y para tratar la anemia y trastornos digestivos, o para fortalecer las encías, en el tratamiento de la disfunción eréctil y como afrodisiacos, para facilitar el parto y calmar los dolores postparto, y tratar el prolapso de la matriz o para el exceso de flujo menstrual. También se utilizaron como diuréticos, para la disuria y en trastornos de la vejiga. El uso que más claramente ha persistido es el tratamiento de diversos problemas respiratorios. En uso externo se utilizaron para tratar problemas de la piel, heridas, hemorragias y hemorroides. De la palmera de Canarias (Phoenix canariensis), especialmente en la isla de la Gomera, la savia cruda o guarapo, su concentrado o miel de palma y los resultantes de su fermentación (vino de palma) se consumen como alimento y también se utilizan como diurético, remedio de trastornos génitourinarios, digestivo, para infecciones de la cavidad bucal, expectorante, antitusígeno y para las irritaciones de garganta. En el Toledo de Al-Andalus las espatas de P. dactylifera se utilizaron, hace casi mil años, en el tratamiento de la debilidad, los dolores, nefritis, las enfermedades de la vejiga, trastornos hepáticos (también como preventivo), diarrea, trastornos digestivos, dolores en el abdomen y en el estómago, excesivo sangrado menstrual, úlceras en la piel y sarna, dolores articulares y trastornos cardiacos. La fitoterapia racional debería prestar atención a este recurso, considerar la evidencia científica disponible (farmacológica e incluso clínica) e incorporarlo a nuestro repertorio terapéutico.