Let Go and Remember. How Finnish Communities Experienced and Memorialized School Shootings

This study examines the aftermath of mass violence in local communities. Two rampage school shootings that occurred in Finland are analyzed and compared to examine the ways in which communities experience, make sense of, and recover from sudden acts of mass violence. The studied cases took place at Jokela High School, in southern Finland, and at a polytechnic university in Kauhajoki, in western Finland, in 2007 and 2008 respectively. Including the perpetrators, 20 people lost their lives in these shootings. These incidents are part of the global school shooting phenomenon with increasing numbers of incidents occurring in the last two decades, mostly in North America and Europe. The dynamic of solidarity and conflict is one of the main themes of this study. It builds upon previous research on mass violence and disasters which suggests that solidarity increases after a crisis, and that this increase is often followed by conflict in the affected communities. This dissertation also draws from theoretical discussions on remembering, narrating, and commemorating traumatic incidents, as well as the idea of a cultural trauma process in which the origins and consequences of traumas are negotiated alongside collective identities. Memorialization practices and narratives about what happened are vital parts of the social memory of crises and disasters, and their inclusive and exclusive characteristics are discussed in this study. The data include two types of qualitative interviews; focused interviews with 11 crisis workers, and focused, narrative interviews with 21 residents of Jokela and 22 residents of Kauhajoki. A quantitative mail survey of the Jokela population (N=330) provided data used in one of the research articles. The results indicate that both communities experienced a process of simultaneous solidarity and conflict after the shootings. In Jokela, the community was constructed as a victim, and public expressions of solidarity and memorialization were promoted as part of the recovery process. In Kauhajoki, the community was portrayed as an incidental site of mass violence, and public expressions of solidarity by distant witnesses were labeled as unnecessary and often criticized. However, after the shooting, the community was somewhat united in its desire to avoid victimization and a prolonged liminal period. This can be understood as a more modest and invisible process of “silent solidarity”. The processes of enforced solidarity were partly made possible by exclusion. In some accounts, the family of the perpetrator in Jokela was excluded from the community. In Kauhajoki, the whole incident was externalized. In both communities, this exclusion included associating the shooting events, certain places, and certain individuals with the concept of evil, which helped to understand and explain the inconceivable incidents. Differences concerning appropriate emotional orientations, memorialization practices and the pace of the recovery created conflict in both communities. In Jokela, attitudes towards the perpetrator and his family were also a source of friction. Traditional gender roles regarding the expression of emotions remained fairly stable after the school shootings, but in an exceptional situation, conflicting interpretations arose concerning how men and women should express emotion. The results from the Jokela community also suggest that while increased solidarity was seen as important part of the recovery process, some negative effects such as collective guilt, group divisions, and stigmatization also emerged. Based on the results, two simultaneous strategies that took place after mass violence were identified; one was a process of fast-paced normalization, and the other was that of memorialization. Both strategies are ways to restore the feeling of security shattered by violent incidents. The Jokela community emphasized remembering while the Kauhajoki community turned more to the normalization strategy. Both strategies have positive and negative consequences. It is important to note that the tendency to memorialize is not the only way of expressing solidarity, as fast normalization includes its own kind of solidarity and helps prevent the negative consequences of intense solidarity.

Transforming growth factor beta activity in urine of patients with type 2 diabetes and diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is characterized structurally by progressive mesangial deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM). Transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) is considered to be one of the major cytokines involved in the regulation of ECM synthesis and degradation. Several studies suggest that an increase in urinary TGF-ß levels may reflect an enhanced production of this polypeptide by the kidney cells. We evaluated TGF-ß in occasional urine samples from 14 normal individuals and 23 patients with type 2 diabetes (13 with persistent proteinuria >500 mg/24 h, DN, 6 with microalbuminuria, DMMA, and 4 with normal urinary albumin excretion, DMN) by enzyme immunoassay. An increase in the rate of urinary TGF-ß excretion (pg/mg UCreat.) was observed in patients with DN (296.07 ± 330.77) (P<0.001) compared to normal individuals (17.04 ± 18.56) (Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric analysis of variance); however, this increase was not observed in patients with DMMA (25.13 ± 11.30) or in DMN (18.16 ± 11.82). There was a positive correlation between the rate of urinary TGF-ß excretion and proteinuria (r = 0.70, a = 0.05) (Pearson's analysis), one of the parameters of disease progression.

Kantatien 40 liikenneturvallisuustarkastus

Turun kehätie (kantatie 40) on osa Suomen tärkeintä kansainvälistä yhteyttä E18 ja EU:n tärkeäksi priorisoimaa Pohjolan kolmion liikennejärjestelmää. Kantatiellä on erittäin merkittävä rooli Varsinais-Suomen ja sen lähialueiden tieliikenne-, satama-, lentokenttä- ja rautatieasemayhteytenä. Kantatien parantamiseksi on laadittu lukuisia esi- ja tarvesuunnitelmia ja kantatien parantamista on sivuttu sekä liikennejärjestelmä- että kunnittaisissa liikenneturvallisuussuunnitelmissa. Pitkän tähtäimen toimenpidetarpeet ovat kyllä tiedossa, mutta rahoitus toimenpiteille puuttuu. Tästä johtuen kantatien parantamisen ensimmäisenä vaiheena on nyt laadittu liikenneturvallisuusauditointi, jossa on määritetty ensimmäisen ja toisen kiireellisyysvaiheen pienet, toteuttamiskelpoiset ja kustannustehokkaat parantamistoimenpiteet. Nykytilanteen analyysin, maastokäyntien ja työryhmätyöskentelyn pohjalta kantatielle 40 määritettiin yhteensä 258 parantamistoimenpidettä. Toimenpiteet jaettiin kolmeen kategoriaan: A) Ajoratamaalaukset, B) Liikennemerkkijärjestelyt ja C) Infratoimenpiteet. Raportissa kustakin kategoriasta on esitetty lukuisia toimenpide-esimerkkejä valokuvineen. Toimenpiteet jaettiin lisäksi kahteen kiireellisyysluokkaan ja jokaiselle toimenpiteelle esitettiin vastuutaho ja karkea yksikkökustannusarvio. Kaikkien hankkeiden yhteenlaskettu kustannusarvio on noin miljoona euroa. Erittäin pieniä toimenpiteitä ( = kiireellisyysluokka nro 1) on esitetty yhteensä 162 kpl ja niiden kokonaiskustannusarvio on noin 330 000 euroa. Muita kevyitä toimenpiteitä ( = kiireellisyysluokka nro 2) on esitetty yhteensä 96 kpl ja niiden kokonaiskustannusarvio on noin 670 000 euroa. Tässä selvityksessä esitettyjen pienten toimenpiteiden yhteenlaskettu laskennallinen henkilövahinko-onnettomuuksien vähenemä on 1,887 henkilövahinkoon johtanutta onnettomuutta vuodessa (nykyisin noin 18 heva-onnettomuutta vuodessa). Varsinais-Suomen ELY-keskus pyrkii resurssiensa rajoissa toteuttamaan tulevina vuosina esitettyjä toimenpiteitä. Toimenpiteiden toteutusta tullaan seuraamaan ja ensimmäinen seurantapalaveri järjestetään kahden vuoden kuluttua vuoden 2016 lopussa.

Ventilation with high tidal volume induces inflammatory lung injury

Mechanical ventilation with high tidal volumes (V T) has been shown to induce lung injury. We examined the hypothesis that this procedure induces lung injury with inflammatory features. Anesthetized male Wistar rats were randomized into three groups: group 1 (N = 12): V T = 7 ml/kg, respiratory rate (RR) = 50 breaths/min; group 2 (N = 10): V T = 21 ml/kg, RR = 16 breaths/min; group 3 (N = 11): V T = 42 ml/kg, RR = 8 breaths/min. The animals were ventilated with fraction of inspired oxygen of 1 and positive end-expiratory pressure of 2 cmH2O. After 4 h of ventilation, group 3, compared to groups 1 and 2, had lower PaO2 [280 (range 73-458) vs 517 (range 307-596), and 547 mmHg (range 330-662), respectively, P<0.05], higher wet lung weight [3.62 ± 0.91 vs 1.69 ± 0.48 and 1.44 ± 0.20 g, respectively, P<0.05], and higher wet lung weight/dry lung weight ratio [18.14 (range 11.55-26.31) vs 7.80 (range 4.79-12.18), and 6.34 (range 5.92-7.04), respectively, P<0.05]. Total cell and neutrophil counts were higher in group 3 compared to groups 1 and 2 (P<0.05), as were baseline TNF-alpha concentrations [134 (range <10-386) vs 16 (range <10-24), and 17 pg/ml (range <10-23), respectively, P<0.05]. Serum TNF-alpha concentrations reached a higher level in group 3, but without statistical significance. These results suggest that mechanical ventilation with high V T induces lung injury with inflammatory characteristics. This ventilatory strategy can affect the release of TNF-alpha in the lungs and can reach the systemic circulation, a finding that may have relevance for the development of a systemic inflammatory response.

Social Solidarity and Fear of Crime - Community and Individual Approaches in Responses to Mass Violence after School Shootings

The aim of this study was to examine community and individual approaches in responses to mass violence after the school shooting incidents in Jokela (November 2007) and Kauhajoki (September 2008), Finland. In considering the community approach, responses to any shocking criminal event may have integrative, as well as disintegrative effects, within the neighborhood. The integration perspective argues that a heinous criminal event within one’s community is a matter of offence to collectively held feelings and beliefs, and increases perceived solidarity; whereas the disintegration perspective suggests that a criminal event weakens the social fabric of community life by increasing fear of crime and mistrust among locals. In considering the individual approach, socio-demographic factors, such as one’s gender, are typically significant indicators, which explain variation in fear of crime. Beyond this, people are not equally exposed to violent crime and therefore prior victimization and event related experiences may further explain why people differ in their sensitivity to risk from mass violence. Finally, factors related to subjective mental health, such as depressed mood, are also likely to moderate individual differences in responses to mass violence. This study is based on the correlational design of four independent cross-sectional postal surveys. The sampling frames (N=700) for the surveys were the Finnish speaking adult population aged 18–74-years. The first mail survey in Jokela (n=330) was conducted between May and June 2008, approximately six months from the shooting incident at the local high-school. The second Jokela survey (n=278) was conducted in May–June of 2009, 18 months removed from the incident. The first survey in Kauhajoki (n=319) was collected six months after the incident at the local University of Applied Sciences, March– April 2009, and the second (n=339) in March–April 2010, approximately 18 months after the event. Linear and ordinal regression and path analysis are used as methods of analyses. The school shootings in Jokela and Kauhajoki were extremely disturbing events, which deeply affected the communities involved. However, based on the results collected, community responses to mass violence between the two localities were different. An increase in social solidarity appears to apply in the case of the Jokela community, but not in the case of the Kauhajoki community. Thus a criminal event does not necessarily impact the wider community. Every empirical finding is most likely related to different contextual and event-specific factors. Beyond this, community responses to mass violence in Jokela also indicated that the incident was related to a more general sense of insecurity and was also associating with perceived community deterioration and further suggests that responses to mass violence may have both integrating and disintegrating effects. Moreover, community responses to mass violence should also be examined in relation to broader social anxieties and as a proxy for generalized insecurity. Community response is an emotive process and incident related feelings are perhaps projected onto other identifiable concerns. However, this may open the door for social errors and, despite integrative effects, this may also have negative consequences within the neighborhood. The individual approach suggests that women are more fearful than men when a threat refers to violent crime. Young women (aged 18–34) were the most worried age and gender group as concerns perception of threat from mass violence at schools compared to young men (aged 18–34), who were also the least worried age and gender group when compared to older men. It was also found that concerns about mass violence were stronger among respondents with the lowest level of monthly household income compared to financially better-off respondents. Perhaps more importantly, responses to mass violence were affected by the emotional proximity to the event; and worry about the recurrence of school shootings was stronger among respondents who either were a parent of a school-aged child, or knew a victim. Finally, results indicate that psychological wellbeing is an important individual level factor. Respondents who expressed depressed mood consistently expressed their concerns about mass violence and community deterioration. Systematic assessments of the impact of school shooting events on communities are therefore needed. This requires the consolidation of community and individual approaches. Comparative study designs would further benefit from international collaboration across disciplines. Extreme school violence has also become a national concern and deeper understanding of crime related anxieties in contemporary Finland also requires community-based surveys.

Swimming training increases cardiac vagal activity and induces cardiac hypertrophy in rats

The effect of swimming training (ST) on vagal and sympathetic cardiac effects was investigated in sedentary (S, N = 12) and trained (T, N = 12) male Wistar rats (200-220 g). ST consisted of 60-min swimming sessions 5 days/week for 8 weeks, with a 5% body weight load attached to the tail. The effect of the autonomic nervous system in generating training-induced resting bradycardia (RB) was examined indirectly after cardiac muscarinic and adrenergic receptor blockade. Cardiac hypertrophy was evaluated by cardiac weight and myocyte morphometry. Plasma catecholamine concentrations and citrate synthase activity in soleus muscle were also determined in both groups. Resting heart rate was significantly reduced in T rats (355 ± 16 vs 330 ± 20 bpm). RB was associated with a significantly increased cardiac vagal effect in T rats (103 ± 25 vs 158 ± 40 bpm), since the sympathetic cardiac effect and intrinsic heart rate were similar for the two groups. Likewise, no significant difference was observed for plasma catecholamine concentrations between S and T rats. In T rats, left ventricle weight (13%) and myocyte dimension (21%) were significantly increased, suggesting cardiac hypertrophy. Skeletal muscle citrate synthase activity was significantly increased by 52% in T rats, indicating endurance conditioning. These data suggest that RB induced by ST is mainly mediated parasympathetically and differs from other training modes, like running, that seems to mainly decrease intrinsic heart rate in rats. The increased cardiac vagal activity associated with ST is of clinical relevance, since both are related to increased life expectancy and prevention of cardiac events.

Concentration of CCL11, CXCL8 and TNF-alpha in sputum and plasma of patients undergoing asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are common respiratory illnesses characterized by chronic inflammation of the airways. The characterization of induced or spontaneously produced sputum is a useful technique to assess airway inflammation. In the present study, we compared the concentrations of CCL2, CCL11, CXCL8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in plasma and induced sputum of patients with severe asthma or COPD and correlated the levels of these mediators with inflammatory cells in sputum. Asthmatic patients had elevated levels of eosinophils (40.1 ± 6.24%) in sputum whereas neutrophils (63.3 ± 4.66%) predominated in COPD patients. The levels of the chemokine CCL11 were markedly increased in sputum (708.7 ± 330.7 pg/ml) and plasma (716.6 ± 162.2 pg/ml) of asthmatic patients and correlated with the percentage of eosinophils in induced sputum. The concentrations of CXCL8 (817.0 ± 105.2 pg/ml) and TNF-alpha (308.8 ± 96.1 pg/ml) were higher in sputum of COPD patients and correlated with the percentage of neutrophils in induced sputum. There was also an increase in the concentrations of CXCL8 (43.2 ± 6.8 pg/ml) in sputum of asthmatic patients. These results validate that sputum is a suitable method to assess chemokines and cytokines associated with asthma and COPD. Moreover, the mechanisms involved in the synthesis of CCL11 and CXCL8/TNF-alpha would be helpful to better understand the inflammatory profile associated with asthma and COPD, respectively.

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Kartussin vieressä privilegiomerkintä: Cum priuilegio.

Association between apolipoprotein E genotype, serum lipids, and colorectal cancer in Brazilian individuals

We evaluated genetic variants of apolipoprotein E (APOE HhaI) and their association with serum lipids in colorectal cancer (CRC), together with eating habits and personal history. Eight-seven adults with CRC and 73 controls were studied. APOE*2 (rs7412) and APOE*4 (rs429358) were identified by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. APOE gene polymorphisms were similar in both groups, but the ε4/ε4 genotype (6%) was present only in controls. The patients had reduced levels (mean ± SD) of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol fraction (180.4 ± 49.5 and 116.1 ± 43.1 mg/dL, respectively) compared to controls (204.2 ± 55.6, P = 0.135 and 134.7 ± 50.8 mg/dL; P = 0.330, respectively) indicating that they were not statistically significant after the Bonferroni correction. The APOE*4 allele was associated with lower levels of total cholesterol, low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol fraction and increased levels of very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol fraction and triglycerides only among patients (P = 0.014). There was a positive correlation between the altered lipid profile and increased body mass indexes in both groups (P < 0.010). Moreover, a higher rate of hypertension and overweight was observed in controls (P < 0.002). In conclusion, the presence of the ε4/ε4 genotype only in controls may be due to a protective effect against CRC. Lower lipid profile values among patients, even those on lipid-rich diets associated with the APOE*4 allele, suggest alterations in the lipid synthesis and metabolism pathways in CRC.

Effects of different general anesthetics on serum hemolysis and hepatic and muscular glycogenolysis in rats

Anesthetics can affect the structure and biological function of tissues and systems differentially. The aim of the present study was to compare three injectable anesthetics generally used in experiments with animals in terms of the degree of hemolysis and glycogenolysis occurring after profound anesthesia. Twenty-four male Wistar rats (330-440 g) were divided into three groups (N = 8): chloral hydrate (CH), ketamine + xylazine (KX), Zoletil 50® (zolazepam and tiletamine) + xylazine (ZTX). After deep anesthesia, total blood was collected. The liver and white (WG) and red gastrocnemius (RG) muscles were also immediately removed. The degree of serum hemolysis was quantified on the basis of hemoglobin concentration (g/L). Hepatic and muscular glycogen concentrations (mmol/kg wet tissue) were quantified by the phenol-sulfuric method. The CH and KX groups exhibited serum hemolysis (4.0 ± 2.2 and 1.9 ± 0.9 g/L, respectively; P < 0.05) compared to the ZTX group, which presented none. Only KX induced elevated glycogenolysis (mmol/kg wet tissue) in the liver (86.9 ± 63.2) and in WG (18.7 ± 9.0) and RG (15.2 ± 7.2; P < 0.05). The CH and ZTX groups exhibited no glycogenolysis in the liver (164.4 ± 41.1 and 176.8 ± 54.4, respectively), WG (28.8 ± 4.4, 32.0 ± 6.5, respectively) or RG (29.0 ± 4.9; 25.3 ± 8.6, respectively). Our data indicate that ZTX seems to be an appropriate general anesthetic for studies that seek to simultaneously quantify the concentration of glycogen and serum biochemical markers without interferences. ZTX is reasonably priced, found easily at veterinary markets, quickly induces deep anesthesia, and presents a low mortality rate.

Peritoneal and serum interleukin-18 levels are not increased in women with minimum or mild endometriosis

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a cytokine that belongs to the IL-1 family. Endometriosis is strongly associated with sub-fertility, and affects about 15% of women of reproductive age. IL-18 may favor the progression of endometriosis. The objective of the present study was to determine the concentration of IL-18 in the serum and peritoneal fluid of infertile women with endometriosis. Forty infertile and 25 fertile women were screened in a teaching hospital. Thirty-four infertile patients with minimal or mild endometriosis and 22 fertile controls were enrolled in the study. The primary outcome was the estimate of IL-18 levels and the secondary outcome was the correlation between serum and peritoneal levels of IL-18. There were no differences between the two groups regarding age, body mass index and levels of peritoneal fluid IL-18 (mean ± SD): 290.85 ± 173.02 pg/mL for infertile women vs 374.21 ± 330.15 pg/mL for controls; or serum IL-18: 391.07 ± 119.71 pg/mL for infertile women vs 373.42 ± 129.11 pg/mL for controls. However, a positive association was found between serum and peritoneal IL-18 levels in patients with endometriosis: r = 0.794, P = 0.0001. All measurements were carried out at the same time by the Human IL-18 Immuno Assay ELISA kit (MBL Co. Ltd., Japan). The present study did not find evidence supporting the hypothesis that IL-18 levels are associated with infertility in women with minimal and mild endometriosis, although a positive correlation was detected in these women between peritoneal and serum levels of IL-18.

Effect of skilled and unskilled training on nerve regeneration and functional recovery

The most disabling aspect of human peripheral nerve injuries, the majority of which affect the upper limbs, is the loss of skilled hand movements. Activity-induced morphological and electrophysiological remodeling of the neuromuscular junction has been shown to influence nerve repair and functional recovery. In the current study, we determined the effects of two different treatments on the functional and morphological recovery after median and ulnar nerve injury. Adult Wistar male rats weighing 280 to 330 g at the time of surgery (N = 8-10 animals/group) were submitted to nerve crush and 1 week later began a 3-week course of motor rehabilitation involving either "skilled" (reaching for small food pellets) or "unskilled" (walking on a motorized treadmill) training. During this period, functional recovery was monitored weekly using staircase and cylinder tests. Histological and morphometric nerve analyses were used to assess nerve regeneration at the end of treatment. The functional evaluation demonstrated benefits of both tasks, but found no difference between them (P > 0.05). The unskilled training, however, induced a greater degree of nerve regeneration as evidenced by histological measurement (P < 0.05). These data provide evidence that both of the forelimb training tasks used in this study can accelerate functional recovery following brachial plexus injury.

Determinação simultânea dos teores de cinza e proteína em farinha de trigo empregando NIRR-PLS e DRIFT-PLS

As técnicas de espectroscopia por reflexão no infravermelho próximo (NIRRS) e por reflexão difusa no infravermelho médio com transformada de Fourier (DRIFTS) foram empregadas com o método de regressão multivariado por mínimos quadrados parciais (PLS) para a determinação simultânea dos teores de proteína e cinza em amostras de farinha de trigo da variedade Triticum aestivum L. Foram coletados espectros no infravermelho em duplicata de 100 amostras, empregando-se acessórios de reflexão difusa. Os teores de proteína (8,85-13,23%) e cinza (0,330-1,287%), empregados como referência, foram determinados pelo método Kjeldhal e método gravimétrico, respectivamente. Os dados espectrais foram utilizados no formato log(1/R), bem como suas derivadas de primeira e segunda ordem, sendo pré-processados usando-se os dados centrados na média (MC) ou escalados pela variância (VS) ou ambos. Cinqüenta e cinco amostras foram usadas para calibração e 45 para validação dos modelos, adotando-se como critério de construção os valores mínimos do erro padrão de calibração (SEC) e do erro padrão de validação (SEV). Estes valores foram inferiores a 0,33% para proteína e a 0,07% para cinza. Os métodos desenvolvidos apresentam como vantagens a não agressão ao ambiente, bem como permitem uma determinação direta, simultânea, rápida e não destrutiva dos teores de proteína e cinza em amostras de farinha de trigo.