Canine distemper virus infection in a lesser grison (Galictis cuja): first report and virus phylogeny

Infectious diseases in wild animals have been increasing as a result of their habitat alterations and closer contact with domestic animals. Canine distemper virus (CDV) has been reported in several species of wild carnivores, presenting a threat to wildlife conservation. We described the first case of canine distemper virus infection in lesser grison (Galictis cuja). A free-ranging individual, with no visible clinical sigs, presented sudden death after one day in captivity. Molecular diagnosis for CDV infection was performed using whole blood collected by postmortem intracardiac puncture, which resulted positive. The virus phylogeny indicated that domestic dogs were the probable source of infection.

Essays on auditor independence

Auditor independence is a cornerstone of the auditing profession and the basic principle that underpins the reputation of the auditing profession in the public eye. Indeed, it is the attribute most demanded from auditors by the public. Therefore, the sustainability of the auditing profession depends on how auditors can protect this principle. This dissertation consists of four interrelated essays concerned with auditor independence. Specifically, it examines situations that can threaten and impair auditor independence. In addition, this dissertation also examines several variables that may enhance and protect auditor independence. The first essay aims to examine the impact of social pressures occurring within audit firms on auditors’ judgment in the setting of a society with “high power distance” and “low individualism” cultural dimensions. The social pressures consisted of obedience pressure exerted by an auditor’s superior and conformity pressure exerted by an auditor’s colleague. Moreover, two moderating variables—a multi-dimensional professional commitment and locus of control—were included as moderator variables in the relationship between the social pressures faced by auditors and their judgment. The findings show that obedience and conformity pressures influence auditor judgment. Auditors who face the social pressures will make a judgment that may be even diametrically opposite to the independence principle. The findings also indicate that a multi-dimensional professional commitment and locus of control may potentially influence auditor judgment in a situation with social pressures. The second essay aims to investigate the association of advocacy and familiarity threats caused by auditor fee dependence and auditor tenure on auditor independence based on Finnish data, law, and auditing environment. This essay was motivated by the Green Paper on Audit Policy, published by the European Commission in 2010 that questions whether the maximum fee collected from a client should be regulated and whether consecutive assignments should be limited, among others. Contrary to popular belief, this essay does not find evidence that audit fees and long auditor tenure will jeopardise auditor independence. Therefore, the findings do not support policies to regulate auditor fees or limit auditor tenure in Finland. The third essay aims to examine the effect of client intimidation on auditor independence in an audit-client conflict situation. Intimidation threat is one of five independence threats that are explicitly referenced in the IFAC’s independence framework. Client intimidation was manifested in the client threatening to replace the auditor if the auditor did not adopt the client’s position. In addition, this essay examines the role of auditor’s perceived pressure and multi-dimensions of professional commitment as moderator variables. The findings suggest that auditors who experience client intimidation in an audit conflict situation are more likely to have their independence impaired than those who are in a similar situation but without client intimidation. Moreover, auditors who experience client intimidation perceive higher pressure than those who do not experience intimidation. Finally, auditors’ affective and continuance professional commitment dimensions moderate the relationship between auditors’ perceived pressures and auditor independence. The aim of the fourth essay is twofold. First, it aims to develop a scale for measuring auditors’ reputation awareness. Second, it aims to examine the correlation between the levels of auditor reputation awareness and auditor independence. A seven-item scale was developed as the reputation awareness scale. The findings indicate that the scale consists of one dimension. It also has a level of satisfactory reliability and a high level of validity. The findings show that there is a positive correlation between the level of auditors’ reputation awareness and auditor independence.

Vieraslajien torjunta Lounais-Suomessa : Hyvät käytännöt

Puutarhoista karanneet jättiputket, jättipalsami ja kurtturuusu ovat levinneet laajalti luontoon koko Suomessa. Nämä lajit ovat luonnon monimuotoisuutta ja elinympäristöjen viihtyisyyttä uhkaavia vieraslajeja. Jättiputket uhkaavat myös suoraan ihmisen terveyttä. Lounais-Suomessa aloitettiin näiden lajien järjestelmällinen kartoitus ja käytännön torjunta jo vuodesta 2008 alkaen. Aiemmista vieraslajihankkeista vuosina 2008-2010 on saatu merkittävästi tietoa jättiputkien, jättipalsamin ja kurtturuusun torjunnasta. Hankkeissa testattiin erilaisia torjuntamenetelmiä, kuten kasvien kitkentää, kaivamista juurineen, peittämistä pressuilla ja kemiallista käsittelyä. Hankkeissa seurattiin eri torjuntatapojen tehokkuutta ja laskettiin niiden kustannuksia. Myös torjuntatyön järjestämisen eri tapoja, kuten urakointi, torjuntatiimi ja talkoot, on seurattu ja niiden kustannuksia arvioitu. Tämä raportti esittää Varsinais-Suomen ELY-keskuksen toiminta-alueella saatuja kokemuksia ja paikallisesti hyväksi havaittuja toimia jättiputkien, jättipalsamin ja kurtturuusun leviämisen estämisessä, myös vieraslajien torjunnasta aiheutuneita kustannuksia. Toivomme, että raportti antaa eväitä vieraskasvilajien torjunnan suunnitteluun muilla alueilla ja auttaa arvioimaan toimintaan liittyviä kustannuksia. Raportti on osa Maa- ja metsätalousministeriön rahoittamaa ja useamman organisaation yhteistyönä toteuttamaa Havina-hanketta (Haitallisten vieraslajien hallinta ja tietoisuuden lisääminen).

Stop bugging me! : diversity in appearance of warning coloration

In nature, many animals use body coloration to communicate with each other. For example, colorations can be used as signals between individuals of the same species, but also to recognise individuals of other species, and if they may comprise a threat or not. Many animals use protective coloration to avoid predation. The two most common strategies of protective coloration are camouflage and aposematism. Camouflaged animals have coloration that minimises detection, usually by matching colours or structures in the background. Aposematic animals, on the other hand, signal to predators that they are defended. The defence can be physical structures, such as spikes and hairs, or chemical compounds that make the animal distasteful or even deadly toxic. In order for the warning signal to be effective, the predator has to recognise it as such. Studies have shown that birds for example, that are important visual predators on insects, learn to recognise and avoid unpalatable prey faster if they contrast the background or have large internal contrasts. Typical examples of aposematic species have conspicuous colours like yellow, orange or red, often in combination with black. My thesis focuses on the appearance and function of aposematic colour patterns. Even though researchers have studied aposematism for over a century, there is still a lot we do not know about the phenomenon. For example, as it is crucial that the predators recognise a warning signal, aposematic colorations should assumingly evolve homogeneously and be selected for maximal conspicuousness. Instead, there is an extensive variation of colours and patterns among warning colorations, and it is not uncommon to find typical cryptic colours, such as green and brown in aposematic colour patterns. One hypothesis to this variation is that an aposematic coloration does not have to be maximally signalling in order to be effective, instead it is sufficient to have distinct features that can be easily distinguished from edible prey. To be maximally conspicuous is one way to achieve this, but not the only way. Another hypothesis is that aposematic prey that do not exhibit maximal conspicuousness can exploit both camouflage and aposematism in a distance-dependent fashion, by being signalling when seen close up but camouflaged at a distance. Many prey animals also make use of both strategies by shifting colour at different ecological conditions such as seasonal variations, fluctuations in food resources or between life stages. Yet another explanation for the variation may be that prey animals are usually exposed to several predator species that vary in visual perception and tolerance towards various toxins. The aim with this thesis is, by studying their functions, to understand why aposematic warning signals vary in appearance, specifically in the level of conspicuousness, and if warning coloration can be combined with camouflage. In paper I, I investigated if the colour pattern of the aposematic larva of the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo) can switch function with viewing distance, and be signalling at close range but camouflaged at a distance, by comparing detection time between different colour variants and distances. The results show that the natural coloration has a dual distance-dependent function. Moreover, the study shows that an aposematic coloration does not have to be selected for maximal conspicuousness. A prey animal can optimise its coloration primarily by avoiding detection, but also by investing in a secondary defence, which presence can be signalled if detected. In paper II, I studied how easily detected the coloration of the firebug (Pyrrhocoris apterus), a typical aposematic species, is at different distances against different natural backgrounds, by comparing detection time between different colour variants. Here, I found no distance-dependent switch in function. Instead, the results show that the coloration of the firebug is selected for maximal conspicuousness. One explanation for this is that the firebug is more mobile than the butterfly larva in study I, and movement is often incompatible with efficient camouflage. In paper III, I investigated if a seasonal related colour change in the chemically defended striated shieldbug (Graphosoma lineatum) is an adaptation to optimise a protective coloration by shifting from camouflage to aposematism between two seasons. The results confirm the hypothesis that the coloration expressed in the late summer has a camouflage function, blending in with the background. Further, I investigated if the internal pattern as such increased the effectiveness of the camouflage. Again, the results are in accordance with the hypothesis, as the patterned coloration was more difficult to detect than colorations lacking an internal pattern. This study shows how an aposematic species can optimise its defence by shifting from camouflage to aposematism, but in a different fashion than studied in paper I. The aim with study IV was to study the selection on aposematic signals by identifying characteristics that are common for colorations of aposematic species, and that distinguish them from colorations of other species. I compared contrast, pattern element size and colour proportion between a group of defended species and a group of undefended species. In contrast to my prediction, the results show no significant differences between the two groups in any of the analyses. One explanation for the non-significant results could be that there are no universal characteristics common for aposematic species. Instead, the selection pressures acting on defended species vary, and therefore affect their appearance differently. Another explanation is that all defended species may not have been selected for a conspicuous aposematic warning coloration. Taken together, my thesis shows that having a conspicuous warning coloration is not the only way to be aposematic. Also, aposematism and camouflage is not two mutually exclusive opposites, as there are prey species that exploit both strategies. It is also important to understand that prey animals are exposed to various selection pressures and trade-offs that affect their appearance, and determines what an optimal coloration is for each species or environment. In conclusion, I hold that the variation among warning colorations is larger and coloration properties that have been considered as archetypically aposematic may not be as widespread and representative as previously assumed.

The Global War on Terrorism in the Horn of Africa

Ever since Siad Barre’s regime was toppled in the beginning of the 1990’s Somalia has been without an effective central government. As a result Somalia has remained in an anarchic condition of state collapse for nearly two decades. This anarchy has often been put forward as a potential breeding ground for terrorism. As a response to this threat the United States has undertaken several policies, initiatives, and operations in the Horn of Africa generally and in Somalia specifically. In this descriptive study a twofold analysis has been undertaken. First, conditions in present day Somalia as well as Somali history have been analyzed to evaluate the potential Somalia holds as a terrorist base of operations or a recruiting- or staging area. Second, US strategies and actions have been analyzed to evaluate the adequacy of the US response to the threat Somalia poses in terms of terrorism. Material for the analyses have been derived from anthropological, political, and security studies dealing with Somalia. This material has been augmented by a wide range of news coverage, western and non-western. Certain different US policy documents from different levels have been chosen to represent US strategies for the Global War on Terrorism. Because Somali social institutions, such as the clan system, hold great weight in Somali society, Somalia is a difficult area of operations for terrorist networks. In addition the changing nature of Somali alliances and the tangled webs of conflict that characterize present day Somalia aggravate the difficulties that foreign terrorist networks would encounter in Somalia, would they choose to try to utilize it in any great extent. The US has taken potential terrorism threats in Africa and specifically Somalia very seriously. US actions in Somalia have mainly focused on apprehending or neutralizing terror suspects. Such policies, coupled with backing the Ethiopian invasion of Somalia may have actually turned out increasing Somalia’s terror potential.

Hezbollah and Taliban - hybrid adversaries in contemporary conflicts? : views on an adversary from the United States Armed Forces perspective

The experiences of the United States Armed Forces of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and Israel Defense Forces in the Second Lebanon War resulted a new term to surface called “hybrid warfare”. It was to describe the complexity of today’s battlefield. The term “hy-brid warfare” was never officially defined nor is it today. The updated version of the US ARMY Field Manual 3-0: Operations (Change 1) from February 22, 2011, introduced and defined “hybrid threat” and thus opened the discussion for hybrid adversary. In this thesis a model is introduced according to which any organization, group or an ad-versary can be examined and evaluated to see whether it qualifies as a hybrid adversary. It is demonstrated by the example of Hezbollah, which is recognized as the best example of an organization utilizing “hybrid warfare” and subsequently categorizing as a hybrid adver-sary. The model will be tested with Afghan Taliban to see whether both the model works and Taliban qualifies as a hybrid adversary or not. According to the model used in this thesis, it is concluded that Taliban does not meet the standards of a hybrid adversary, but with acquisition of standoff weapons it would quickly qualify as one. The model proved to work, and it could be used as a tool by intelligence of-ficers for estimating the threat levels of any group or identifying those groups that are al-ready or are about to develop into a hybrid adversary.

A cyber security architecture for military networks using a cognitive network approach

Cyber security is one of the main topics that are discussed around the world today. The threat is real, and it is unlikely to diminish. People, business, governments, and even armed forces are networked in a way or another. Thus, the cyber threat is also facing military networking. On the other hand, the concept of Network Centric Warfare sets high requirements for military tactical data communications and security. A challenging networking environment and cyber threats force us to consider new approaches to build security on the military communication systems. The purpose of this thesis is to develop a cyber security architecture for military networks, and to evaluate the designed architecture. The architecture is described as a technical functionality. As a new approach, the thesis introduces Cognitive Networks (CN) which are a theoretical concept to build more intelligent, dynamic and even secure communication networks. The cognitive networks are capable of observe the networking environment, make decisions for optimal performance and adapt its system parameter according to the decisions. As a result, the thesis presents a five-layer cyber security architecture that consists of security elements controlled by a cognitive process. The proposed architecture includes the infrastructure, services and application layers that are managed and controlled by the cognitive and management layers. The architecture defines the tasks of the security elements at a functional level without introducing any new protocols or algorithms. For evaluating two separated method were used. The first method is based on the SABSA framework that uses a layered approach to analyze overall security of an organization. The second method was a scenario based method in which a risk severity level is calculated. The evaluation results show that the proposed architecture fulfills the security requirements at least at a high level. However, the evaluation of the proposed architecture proved to be very challenging. Thus, the evaluation results must be considered very critically. The thesis proves the cognitive networks are a promising approach, and they provide lots of benefits when designing a cyber security architecture for the tactical military networks. However, many implementation problems exist, and several details must be considered and studied during the future work.

Physiologic parameters in female Red-billed curassows (Crax blumenbachii) in rehabilitation

Abstract: The present paper reports blood gas analysis, hematologic and micro bacteriologic information on four female Red-billed curassows, rescued from illegal wild animal trading, that were undergoing habilitation for reintroduction into the wild through Projeto Centrofauna/Botucatu-SP. There is a lack of physiological data on this species, endemic to the region of Atlantic Forest (Mata Atlântica), now under threat of extinction. This lack of information makes the clinical evaluation of these birds very difficult and has a direct and adverse effect on any of these birds received for medical treatment in hospitals, veterinary clinics and centers for research and conservation, as well as in reintroduction centers.

Commercialization of Modern Renewable Energy

The threat of global warming and its consequences are widely recognized, and the question of how to proceed with the long transition towards fossil fuel -neutral economies concerns many nations and people. At the same time the world’s primary energy use is predicted to increase significantly during the next decades as a result of global population and welfare increase. Improved energy efficiency and increased use of renewable energy sources in the world’s energy mix play important roles in the future energy production and consumption. The objective of this thesis is to study how novel renewable energy technologies, such as distributed small-scale bio-fueled combined heat and power production and wind power technologies could be commercialized efficiently. A wide array of attributes may contribute to the diffusion of new products. In general, the bioenergy and wind power technologies are in emerging phases, and the diffusion stage varies from country to country. The effects of firms’ technology choices, collaboration and alliances are studied in this thesis. Furthermore, the roles of national energy infrastructure and energy support schemes in the commercialization of new renewable energy products are explored. The empirical data is based on energy expert interviews, financial and patent data, and literature reviews of different case studies. The thesis comprises two parts. The first part provides an overview of the study, and the second part includes six research publications. The results reveal that small-scale bio-fueled combined heat and power production and wind power technologies are still in emerging phases in their life cycles, and energy support schemes are crucial in the market diffusion. The study contributes to earlier findings in the literature and industry by confirming that adequate energy policies and energy infrastructure are fundamental in the commercialization of novel renewable energy technologies. Firm-specific issues, including business relationships and new business models, and market-related issues will have a more significant role in the market penetration in the future, when the technologies mature and become competitive without political support schemes.

Suomen satamissa käsiteltävät pakatut vaaralliset aineet ja esimerkkejä niiden vaaraominaisuuksista

Tämä raportti on tehty osana Kymenlaakson ammattikorkeakoulun hallinnoiman NELIn (North European Logistics Institute) esiselvitystä vaarallisten aineiden tunnistamisesta konttiliikenteessä. Tässä Turun yliopiston merenkulkualan koulutus- ja tutkimuskeskuksen Kotkassa toimivan Merenkulun logistiikan tutkimus -yksikön tekemässä selvityk-sessä on tutkittu kansallista satamaliikenteen PortNet-järjestelmää hyödyntäen, mitä pakattuina kuljetettavia vaarallisia aineita ja kuinka suuria määriä Suomen satamissa käsitellään. PortNet-analyysin tulosten pohjalta tutkimuksessa on selvitetty Suomen satamissa eniten käsiteltyjen, pakattuina kuljetettavien vaarallisten aineiden vaaraominaisuuksia sekä ihmisten että ympäristön kannalta. Tutkimuksessa tehdyn PortNet-analyysin perusteella pakattuja vaarallisia aineita käsiteltiin 16:ssa Suomen satamassa vuonna 2012. Käsiteltyjen aineiden kokonaismäärä oli noin 820 000 tonnia, josta viennin osuus oli 53 % ja tuonnin 47 %. Eniten kuljetettuja IMDG-luokkia olivat luokan 3 palavat nesteet (31 %:n osuus), luokan 9 muut vaaralliset aineet ja esineet (25 %) sekä luokan 8 syövyttävät aineet (23 %). Muiden luokkien osuus oli alle 10 %. Suomen satamissa käsiteltiin vuonna 2012 yhteensä noin 1 020 eri-laista, pakattua vaarallista ainetta. Yli 10 000 tonnia käsiteltyjä aineita oli yhteensä 16, 1 000–10 000 tonnia käsiteltyjä aineita 84, 100–1 000 tonnia käsiteltyjä aineita 148 ja alle 100 tonnia käsiteltyjä aineita noin 770. Eniten käsiteltyjä aineita olivat pääasiassa erilaiset aineyhdisteet ja tarkemmin määrittelemättömät aineet, kuten ympäristölle vaarallinen aine n.o.s, maalit, polymeeripelletit, hartsiliuos, kohotetussa lämpötilassa oleva neste n.o.s. ja nikkelimetallihybridiakut. Näitä kaikkia käsiteltiin Suomen satamissa yli 20 000 tonnia vuonna 2012. Varsinaisista yksittäisistä vaarallisista aineista eniten käsiteltyjä olivat muurahaishappo, vetyperoksidin vesiliuos, natriumkloraatti, ammoniumnitraatti, fenoli ja kloorietikkahappoliuos. Näitä kaikkia käsiteltiin yli 10 000 tonnia vuonna 2012. PortNet-analyysin tulosten pohjalta valittiin kymmenen ainetta, joiden vaaraominaisuuksia sekä ihmisten että ympäristön kannalta tarkasteltiin tarkemmin. Tarkasteluun valittiin, tieteellistä harkintaa käyttäen, eniten kuljetettavia vaarallisia yksittäisiä kemikaaleja. Tarkasteluun valitut kemikaalit olivat muurahaishappo, vetyperoksidi, natrium-kloraatti, kloorietikkahappo, fenoli, akryyliamidiliuos, ksyleenit, akryylinitriili, tolueeni ja epikloorihydriini. Tutkituista kemikaaleista ympäristölle haitallisimpia ovat fenoli, kloorietikkahappo ja akryyliamidiliuos. Ihmisen kannalta kaikki 10 tutkittua kemikaalia muodostavat onnettomuustilanteessa riskin ihmisten terveydelle joko syövyttävyytensä, reaktiivisuutensa tai myrkyllisyytensä vuoksi. Osa kemikaaleista voi aiheuttaa ihmisille myös kroonisia haittoja, kuten kohonnutta syöpäriskiä tai muutoksia perimässä, joko suurina kerta-annoksina tai pieninä toistuvina pitoisuuksina. Suomen satamissa käsiteltävien pakattujen kemikaalien erilaisuus ja suuri lukumäärä tekevät niistä vaikeasti hallittavissa olevan riskitekijän. Yleisesti ottaen voidaan sanoa, että pakatuista kemikaaleista aiheutuu pienehköissä vuototilanteissa suurempi uhka ihmisen terveydelle kuin ympäristölle, kun taas irtolastikuljetuksissa tapahtuvien onnettomuuksien yhteydessä vuotaneen aineen määrä on yleensä suurempi ja näin ollen myös ympäristölle koituva uhka voi olla suuri.

Mitigation possibilities to Greenhouse gas emissions from power production in India

Global warming is assertively the greatest environmental challenge for humans of 21st century. It is primarily caused by the anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) that trap heat in the atmosphere. Because of which, the GHG emission mitigation, globally, is a critical issue in the political agenda of all high-profile nations. India, like other developing countries, is facing this threat of climate change while dealing with the challenge of sustaining its rapid economic growth. India’s economy is closely connected to its natural resource base and climate sensitive sectors like water, agriculture and forestry. Due to Climate change the quality and distribution of India’s natural resources may transform and lead to adverse effects on livelihood of its people. Therefore, India is expected to face a major threat due to the projected climate change. This study proposes possible solutions for GHG emission mitigation that are specific to the power sector of India. The methods discussed here will take Indian power sector from present coal dominant ideology to a system, centered with renewable energy sources. The study further proposes a future scenario for 2050, based on the present Indian government policies and global energy technologies advancements.

Soraääniä, sitaatteja ja suunnitelmallisuutta. Moniäänisyys Eira Stenbergin romaanituotannossa

Tutkin väitöskirjassani Eira Stenbergin (s. 1943) romaanituotannon moniäänisyyttä, joka liittyy niin subjektiin, kertomisen prosessiin kuin todellisuuskäsityksiin. Aineistonani ovat Stenbergin 1980–1990-luvulla kirjoittamat, tutkimusongelmani kannalta keskeiseen ajanjaksoon kuuluvat romaanit Paratiisin vangit (1984), Häikäisy (1987), Kuun puutarhat (1990) sekä Gulliverin tytär (1993). 1980-luvulla postmodernista tuli kirjallisen kulttuurin keskeisimpiä aiheita Suomessa, ja subjektista tuli ongelma jopa siinä määrin että puhuttiin sen kuolemasta. Ääni oli 1980-luvulla osa subjektia koskevaa keskustelua: yhtäältä nousevan feministisen liikkeen identiteettipoliittisena ja emansipatorisena metaforana, toisaalta jälkistrukturalismin antihumanismin uhkakuvana, joka koski subjektin ääntä alkuperän lähteenä ja persoonan ilmaisuna. Äänen käsitteen voidaan katsoa implikoivan jonkinlaista käsitystä subjektista, ja tarkastelenkin tutkimuksessani erityisesti henkilöhahmoja, kertojia ja kertomisen prosessia, mutta myös tekijän suunnitelmallisuutta ja kuulijaa kohti orientoitumista. Yhdistelen tutkimuksessani retorista kertomuksen teoriaa dekonstruktioon sekä feministisiin subjektiteorioihin. Myös Mihail Bahtinin käsitys moniäänisestä romaanista on työssäni keskeinen. Problematisoin tutkimuksessani äänen kytköksen sisimmän ilmaisuun, omistamiseen ja auktoriteettiin ja ymmärrän sen keskustelualueena, jossa kohtaavat erilaiset arvot ja näkemykset maailmasta. Tällöin kaikenkattava puhe subjektin kuolemasta sekä käsitykset 1980-luvun kirjallisuudesta maailmasta vieraantuneena ja yksityisen alueelle vetäytyvänä problematisoituvat. Stenbergin tuotannon perusteella voi sanoa, että kirjallisuuden äänet saavat merkityksensä vasta erilaisina äänensävyinä konkreettisissa ja ainutkertaisissa konteksteissa. Tämä viittaa tarpeeseen ymmärtää kirjallisuusteoreettisessa keskustelussa usein historiattomana ja universaalina nähty käsite historiaan paikantuneena: eivät vain erityiset aineistot, vaan myös erityiset kontekstit määrittelevät äänen saamia merkityksiä.

Venäjän sotilasreformi : asevoimien uusi ilme

Tässä työpaperissa Venäjän sotilasreformin tarkastelu painottuu maavoimiin. Muista puolustushaaroista käsitellään lyhyesti meri- ja ilmavoimia. Lisäksi käsitellään koulutus, reservi ja mobilisaatio, johtaminen, toiminnan ulkoistaminen ja sosiaaliset kysymykset sekä asevoimien varustaminen. Julkaisun lähdemateriaali on lähes kokonaan venäjänkielistä. Sen avulla esitetään venäläisten omat niin myönteiset kuin kriittiset näkemykset koskien Venäjän asevoimien sotilasreformia, uutta ilmettä. Venäjänkielisistä termeistä käytetään mahdollisimman vastaavaa tai kuvaavaa suomenkielistä ilmaisua.

Anti-predator adaptations in aquatic environments

Predation is an important selective force that has led to the evolution of a variety of fascinating anti-predator adaptations, such as many types of protective coloration and prey behaviours. Because the evolution of life has begun in the aquatic environment and many anti-predator adaptations are found already in relative primitive taxa, it is likely that many of these adaptations evolved initially in the aquatic environment. Yet, there has been surprisingly little research on the mechanisms and function of antipredator adaptations in aquatic systems. To understand the function of anti-predator adaptations and natural selection imposed on prey appearance and behaviour, I have investigated how protective coloration can be used, either as such or together with behavioural adaptations, to manipulate predator behaviour and decrease predation risk. To this end I conducted a series of behaviour ecological laboratory experiments in which I manipulated the visual appearance of artificial backgrounds and prey items. In paper I of this thesis, I investigated background choice as an anti-predator strategy, by observing the habitat choice of the least killifish (Heterandria formosa) between pairs of artificial backgrounds, both in the presence and absence of predation threat. It has been suggested that prey could decrease their risk of being detected by predators either by preferring backgrounds into which they blend or by preferring visually complex backgrounds. The least killifish preferred a background that matched their patterning to a background that mismatched it, showing that they are able to respond to cues of visual similarity between their colour pattern and the surrounding environment. Interestingly however, in female least killifish visual complexity of the background was a more important cue for habitat safety and may override or act together with background matching when searching for a safe habitat. It is possible that in females, preference for visually complex backgrounds is associated with lower opportunity costs than preference for matching backgrounds would be. Generally, the least killifish showed stronger preference while under predation threat, indicating that their background choice behaviour is an antipredator adaptation. Many aquatic prey species have eyespots, which are colour patterns that consist of roughly concentric rings and have received their name because they for humans often resemble the vertebrate eye. I investigated the anti-predator function of eyespots against predation by fish in papers II, III and IV. Some eyespots have been suggested to benefit prey by diverting the strikes of predators away from vital parts of the prey body or towards a direction that facilitates prey escape. Although proposed over a century ago, the divertive effect of eyespots has proven to be difficult to show experimentally. In papers II and III, I tested for divertive effect of eyespots towards attacking fish by presenting artificial prey with eyespots to laboratory reared three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). I found that eyespots strongly influenced the behaviour of attacking sticklebacks and effectively drew their strikes towards the eyespots. To further investigate this divertive effect and whether the specific shape of eyespots is important for it, I tested in paper III the response of fish also to other markings than eyespots. I found that eyespots were generally more effective in diverting the first strikes of attacking fish compared to other prey markings. My findings suggest that the common occurrence of eyespots in aquatic prey species can at least partly be explained by the divertive effect of the eyespot shape, possibly together with the relative simple developmental mechanisms underlying circular colour patterns. An eyebar is a stripe that runs through the eye, and this pattern has been suggested to obscure the real eyes of the prey by visually blending parts of the eyes and head of the prey and by creating false edges. In paper III, I show that an eyebar effectively disrupts an eyelike shape. This suggests that eyebars provide an effective way to conceal the eyes and consequently obstruct detection and recognition of prey. This experiment also demonstrates that through concealment of the eyes, eyebars could be used to enhance the divertive effect of eyespots, which can explain the common occurrence of eyebars in many species of fish that have eyespots. Larger eyespots have been shown to intimidate some terrestrial predators, such as passerine birds, either because they resemble the eyes of the predator’s own enemy or because highly salient features may have an intimidating effect. In papers II and IV, I investigated whether the occurrence of eyespots in some aquatic prey could be explained by their intimidating effect predatory fish. In paper IV, I also investigated the reason for the intimidating effect of eyelike prey marks. In paper II, I found no clear intimidating effect of eyespots, whereas in paper IV, using a different approach, I found that sticklebacks hesitated to attack towards eyelike but not towards non-eyelike marks. Importantly, paper IV therefore presents the first rigorous evidence for the idea that eye mimicry, and not merely conspicuousness, underlies the intimidating effect. It also showed that the hesitation shown by fish towards eyelike marks is partly an innate response that is reinforced by encounters with predators. Collectively, this thesis shows that prey colour pattern and the visual appearance of the habitat influence the behaviour of fish. The results demonstrate that protective coloration provides numerous distinctive ways for aquatic prey to escape predation. Thus, visual perception and behaviour of fish are important factors shaping the appearance and behaviours of aquatic prey.

Cultural distance and negotiation behavior : Perception of entrepreneurs operating in Turku

This thesis investigates the influence of cultural distance on entrepreneurs’ negotiation behaviour. For this purpose, Turku was chosen as the unit of analysis due to the exponential demographic change experienced during the last two decades that has derived in a more diversified local environment. The research aim set for this study was to identify to what extent entrepreneurs face cultural distance, how cultural distance influences the entrepreneur’s negotiation behaviour and how can it be addressed in order to turn dissimilarities into opportunities. This study presented the relation and apparent dichotomy of cultural distance and global culture, including the component of diversity. The impact of cultural distance in the entrepreneurial mindset and its consequent effect in negotiation behaviour was presented too. Addressing questions about the way individuals perceive, behave and interact allowed the use of interviews for this qualitative research study. In the empirical part of this study it was found that negotiation behaviour differed in terms of how congenial entrepreneurs felt when managing cultural distance, encompassing their performance. It was also acknowledged that after time and effort, some of the personal traits were enhanced while others reduced, allowing for more flexibility and adaptation. Furthermore, depending on the level of trust and shared interests, entrepreneurs determined their attitudinal approach, being adaptive or reactive subject to situational aspects. Additionally, it was found that the acquisition of cultural savvy not necessarily conveyed to more creativity. This experiential learning capability led to the proposition of new ways of behaviour. Likewise, it was proposed that growing cultural intelligence bridge distances, reducing mistrusts and misunderstandings. The capability of building more collaborative relationships allows entrepreneurs to see cultural distance as a cultural perspective instead of as a threat. Therefore it was recommended to focus on proximity rather than distance to better identify and exploit untapped opportunities and better perform when negotiating in whichever cultural conditions.