Structure formation as studied by EPR spectroscopy: From simple solutions to nanoparticles

In this thesis, three nitroxide based ionic systems were used to investigate structure and dynamics of their respective solutions in mixed solvents by means of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy at X- and W-band (9.5 and 94.5 GHz, respectively). rnFirst, the solvation of the inorganic radical Fremy’s salt (K2ON(SO3)2) in isotope substituted binary solvent mixtures (methanol/water) was investigated by means of high-field (W-band) pulse ENDOR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. From the analysis of orientation-selective 1H and 2H ENDOR spectra the principal components of the hyperfine coupling (hfc) tensor for chemically different protons (alcoholic methyl vs. exchangeable protons) were obtained. The methyl protons of the organic solvent approach with a mean distance of 3.5 Å perpendicular to the approximate plane spanned by ON(S)2 of the probe molecule. Exchangeable protons were found to be distributed isotropically, approaching closest to Fremy’s salt from the hydrogen-bonded network around the sulfonate groups. The distribution of exchangeable and methyl protons as found in MD simulations is in full agreement with the ENDOR results. The solvation was found to be similar for the studied solvent ratios between 1:2.3 and 2.3:1 and dominated by an interplay of H-bond (electrostatic) interactions and steric considerations with the NO group merely involved into H-bonds.rnFurther, the conformation of spin labeled poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) solutions in aqueous alcohol (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, ethylene glycol, glycerol) mixtures in dependence of divalent sodium sulfate was investigated with double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy. The DEER data was analyzed using the worm-like chain model which suggests that in organic-water solvent mixtures the polymer backbones are preferentially solvated by the organic solvent. We found a less serve impact on conformational changes due to salt than usually predicted in polyelectrolyte theory which stresses the importance of a delicate balance of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, in particular in the presence of organic solvents.rnFinally, the structure and dynamics of miniemulsions and polymerdispersions prepared with anionic surfactants, that were partially replaced by a spin labeled fatty acid in presence and absence of a lanthanide beta-diketonate complex was characterized by CW EPR spectroscopy. Such miniemulsions form multilayers with the surfactant head group bound to the lanthanide ion. Beta-diketonates were formerly used as NMR shift reagents and nowadays find application as luminescent materials in OLEDs and LCDs and as contrast agent in MRT. The embedding of the complex into a polymer matrix results in an easy processable material. It was found that the structure formation takes place in miniemulsion and is preserved during polymerization. For surfactants with carboxyl-head group a higher order of the alkyl chains and less lateral diffusion is found than for sulfat-head groups, suggesting a more uniform and stronger coordination to the metal ion. The stability of these bilayers depends on the temperature and the used surfactant which should be considered for the used polymerization temperature if a maximum output of the structured regions is wished.

Structure and properties of nanostructures from polyelectrolytes and porphyrins: Self-Assembly in aqueous solution

In this work self-assembling model systems in aqueous solution were studied. The systems contained charged polymers, polyelectrolytes, that were combined with oppositely charged counterions to build up supramolecular structures. With imaging, scattering and spectroscopic techniques it was investigated how the structure of building units influences the structure of their assemblies. Polyelectrolytes with different chemical structure, molecular weight and morphology were investigated. In addition to linear polyelectrolytes, semi-flexible cylindrical bottle-brush polymers that possess a defined cross-section and a relatively high persistence along the backbone were studied. The polyelectrolytes were combined with structural organic counterions having charge numbers one to four. Especially the self-assembly of polyelectrolytes with different tetravalent water-soluble porphyrins was studied. Porphyrins have a rigid aromatic structure that has a structural effect on their self-assembly behavior and through which porphyrins are capable of self-aggregation via π-π interaction. The main focus of the thesis is the self-assembly of cylindrical bottle-brush polyelectrolytes with tetravalent porphyrins. It was shown that the addition of porphyrins to oppositely charged brush molecules induces a hierarchical formation of stable nanoscale brush-porphyrin networks. The networks can be disconnected by addition of salt and single porphyrin-decoratedrncylindrical brush polymers are obtained. These two new morphologies, brush-porphyrin networks and porphyrin-decorated brush polymers, may have potential as functional materials with interesting mechanical and optical properties.

A journey through the capital structure of the banking sector: Empirical evidence for Europe from 2008 to 2012

Systemic risk is the protagonist of the recent financial crisis. This thesis proposes a definition and a propagation mechanism for systemic risk. Risk management has a direct linkage with capital management, when addressing the question that the risk handled by a financial institution is compatible with the amount of equity available. This thesis proposes a risk management of liquid market variables, which compose the assets of a bank, based on the statistical tool of PCA. The principal component analysis will define the PCR, or Principal Components of Risk. Such definition of Risk will be adopted to test if the risk represented by PCR is explanatory of the movements of equity and/or debt for the banks included in the in the index Itraxx financial senior: the results of these regressions will be compared with a formal Capital Adequacy test in order to assess the financial soundness of the main financial European institutions.

Structure-property relations in polymers from renewable resources

The present research project focuses its attention on the study of structure-property relations in polymers from renewable sources (bio-based polymers) such as polymers microbially produced, i.e. polyhydrohyalkanoates (PHAs) or chemically synthesized using monomers from renewable sources, i.e. polyammide 11 (PA11). By means of a broad spectrum of experimental techniques, the influence of different modifications on bio-based polymers such as blending with other components, copolymerization with different co-monomers and introduction of branching to yield complex architectures have been investigated. The present work on PHAs focused on the study of the dependence of polymer properties on both the fermentation process conditions (e.g. bacterial strain and carbon substrate used) and the method adopted to recover PHAs from cells. Furthermore, a solvent-free method using an enzyme and chemicals in an aqueous medium, was developed in order to recover PHAs from cells. Such a method allowed to recover PHA granules in their amorphous state, i.e. in native form useful for specific applications (e.g. paper coating). In addition, a commercial PHA was used as polymeric matrix to develop biodegradable and bio-based composites for food packaging applications. Biodegradable, non-toxic, food contact plasticizers and low cost, widely available lignocellulosic fibers (wheat straw fibers) were incorporated in such a polymeric matrix, in order to decrease PHA brittleness and the polymer cost, respectively. As concerns the study of polyamide 11, both the rheological and the solid-state behavior of PA11 star samples with different arm number and length was studied. Introduction of arms in a polymer molecule allows to modulate melt viscosity behavior which is advantageous for industrial applications. Also, several important solid-state properties, in particular mechanical properties, are affected by the presence of branching. Given the importance of using ‘green’ synthetic strategies in polymer chemistry, novel poly(-amino esters), synthesized via enzymatic-catalyzed polymerization, have also been investigated in this work.

From defined polymer architectures to structure-property relationships in vivo

Makromolekulare Wirkstoffträgersysteme sind von starkem Interesse bezüglich der klinischen Anwendung chemotherapeutischer Agenzien. Um ihr klinisches Potential zu untersuchen ist es von besonderer Bedeutung das pharmakokinetische Profil in vivo zu bestimmen. Jede Veränderung der Polymerstruktur beeinflusst die Körperverteilung des entsprechenden Makromoleküls. Aufgrund dessen benötigt man detailliertes Wissen über Struktur-Eigenschaftsbeziehungen im lebenden Organismus, um das Nanocarrier System für zukünftige Anwendungen einzustellen. In dieser Beziehung stellt das präklinische Screening mittels radioaktiver Markierung und Positronen-Emissions-Tomographie eine nützliche Methode für schnelle sowie quantitative Beobachtung von Wirkstoffträgerkandidaten dar. Insbesondere poly(HPMA) und PEG sind im Arbeitsgebiet Polymer-basierter Therapeutika stark verbreitet und von ihnen abgeleitete Strukturen könnten neue Generationen in diesem Forschungsbereich bieten.rnDie vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die erfolgreiche Synthese verschiedener HPMA und PEG basierter Polymer-Architekturen – Homopolymere, Statistische und Block copolymere – die mittels RAFT und Reaktivesterchemie durchgeführt wurde. Des Weiteren wurden die genannten Polymere mit Fluor-18 und Iod-131 radioaktiv markiert und mit Hilfe von microPET und ex vivo Biodistributionsstudien in tumortragenden Ratten biologisch evaluiert. Die Variation in Polymer-Architektur und darauffolgende Analyse in vivo resultierte in wichtige Schlussfolgerungen. Das hydrophile / lipophile Gleichgewicht hatte einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf das pharmakokinetische Profil, mit besten in vivo Eigenschaften (geringe Aufnahme in Leber und Milz sowie verlängerte Blutzirkulationszeit) für statistische HPMA-LMA copolymere mit steigendem hydrophoben Anteil. Außerdem zeigten Langzeitstudien mit Iod-131 eine verstärkte Retention von hochmolekularen, HPMA basierten statistischen Copolymeren im Tumorgewebe. Diese Beobachtung bestätigte den bekannten EPR-Effekt. Hinzukommend stellen Überstrukturbildung und damit Polymergröße Schlüsselfaktoren für effizientes Tumor-Targeting dar, da Polymerstrukturen über 200 nm in Durchmesser schnell vom MPS erkannt und vom Blutkreislauf eliminiert werden. Aufgrund dessen wurden die hier synthetisierten HPMA Block copolymere mit PEG Seitengruppen chemisch modifiziert, um eine Verminderung in Größe sowie eine Reduktion in Blutausscheidung zu induzieren. Dieser Ansatz führte zu einer erhöhten Tumoranreicherung im Walker 256 Karzinom Modell. Generell wird die Körperverteilung von HPMA und PEG basierten Polymeren stark durch die Polymer-Architektur sowie das Molekulargewicht beeinflusst. Außerdem hängt ihre Effizienz hinsichtlich Tumorbehandlung deutlich von den individuellen Charakteristika des einzelnen Tumors ab. Aufgrund dieser Beobachtungen betont die hier vorgestellte Dissertation die Notwendigkeit einer detaillierten Polymer-Charakterisierung, kombiniert mit präklinischem Screening, um polymere Wirkstoffträgersysteme für individualisierte Patienten-Therapie in der Zukunft maßzuschneidern.rn

Structure and function of the glucose PTS transporter from Escherichia coli

The glucose transporter IICB of the Escherichia coli phosphotransferase system (PTS) consists of a polytopic membrane domain (IIC) responsible for substrate transport and a hydrophilic C-terminal domain (IIB) responsible for substrate phosphorylation. We have overexpressed and purified a triple mutant of IIC (mut-IIC), which had recently been shown to be suitable for crystallization purposes. Mut-IIC was homodimeric as determined by blue native-PAGE and gel-filtration, and had an eyeglasses-like structure as shown by negative-stain transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and single particle analysis. Glucose binding and transport by mut-IIC, mut-IICB and wildtype-IICB were compared with scintillation proximity and in vivo transport assays. Binding was reduced and transport was impaired by the triple mutation. The scintillation proximity assay allowed determination of substrate binding, affinity and specificity of wildtype-IICB by a direct method. 2D crystallization of mut-IIC yielded highly-ordered tubular crystals and made possible the calculation of a projection structure at 12Å resolution by negative-stain TEM. Immunogold labeling TEM revealed the sidedness of the tubular crystals, and high-resolution atomic force microscopy the surface structure of mut-IIC. This work presents the structure of a glucose PTS transporter at the highest resolution achieved so far and sets the basis for future structural studies.

From Structure to Function: Characterization of Cu(I) Adducts in Leveler Additives by DFT Calculations

We present the first molecular model of the coordination complex formed by Cu(I) and imidazole-epichlorohydrin polymers. Our calculations show that the Cu(I) ion has linear coordination and the whole complex has neutral charge. Our model suggests salt couple pairing as the driving force for the formation of the surface-confined precipitation, which is crucial to obtain flat surfaces in industrial copper deposition processes, required for mass fabrication of state-of-the-art electronic and memory devices.

LCPD: reduced range of motion resulting from extra- and intraarticular impingement

Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease (LCPD) often results in a deformity that can be considered as a complex form of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). Improved preoperative characterization of the FAI problem based on a noninvasive three-dimensional computer analysis may help to plan the appropriate operative treatment.