Estimate of the total ice volume of Svalbard glaciers and their potential contribution to sea-level rise = Estimación del volumen de hielo de Svalbard y su contribución potencial a la subida del nivel del mar

El objetivo final de las investigaciones recogidas en esta tesis doctoral es la estimación del volumen de hielo total de los ms de 1600 glaciares de Svalbard, en el Ártico, y, con ello, su contribución potencial a la subida del nivel medio del mar en un escenario de calentamiento global. Los cálculos más exactos del volumen de un glaciar se efectúan a partir de medidas del espesor de hielo obtenidas con georradar. Sin embargo, estas medidas no son viables para conjuntos grandes de glaciares, debido al coste, dificultades logísticas y tiempo requerido por ellas, especialmente en las regiones polares o de montaña. Frente a ello, la determinación de áreas de glaciares a partir de imágenes de satélite sí es viable a escalas global y regional, por lo que las relaciones de escala volumen-área constituyen el mecanismo más adecuado para las estimaciones de volúmenes globales y regionales, como las realizadas para Svalbard en esta tesis. Como parte del trabajo de tesis, hemos elaborado un inventario de los glaciares de Svalbard en los que se han efectuado radioecosondeos, y hemos realizado los cálculos del volumen de hielo de más de 80 cuencas glaciares de Svalbard a partir de datos de georradar. Estos volúmenes han sido utilizados para calibrar las relaciones volumen-área desarrolladas en la tesis. Los datos de georradar han sido obtenidos en diversas campañas llevadas a cabo por grupos de investigación internacionales, gran parte de ellas lideradas por el Grupo de Simulación Numérica en Ciencias e Ingeniería de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, del que forman parte la doctoranda y los directores de tesis. Además, se ha desarrollado una metodología para la estimación del error en el cálculo de volumen, que aporta una novedosa técnica de cálculo del error de interpolación para conjuntos de datos del tipo de los obtenidos con perfiles de georradar, que presentan distribuciones espaciales con unos patrones muy característicos pero con una densidad de datos muy irregular. Hemos obtenido en este trabajo de tesis relaciones de escala específicas para los glaciares de Svalbard, explorando la sensibilidad de los parámetros a diferentes morfologías glaciares, e incorporando nuevas variables. En particular, hemos efectuado experimentos orientados a verificar si las relaciones de escala obtenidas caracterizando los glaciares individuales por su tamaño, pendiente o forma implican diferencias significativas en el volumen total estimado para los glaciares de Svalbard, y si esta partición implica algún patrón significativo en los parámetros de las relaciones de escala. Nuestros resultados indican que, para un valor constante del factor multiplicativo de la relacin de escala, el exponente que afecta al área en la relación volumen-área decrece según aumentan la pendiente y el factor de forma, mientras que las clasificaciones basadas en tamaño no muestran un patrón significativo. Esto significa que los glaciares con mayores pendientes y de tipo circo son menos sensibles a los cambios de área. Además, los volúmenes de la población total de los glaciares de Svalbard calculados con fraccionamiento en grupos por tamaño y pendiente son un 1-4% menores que los obtenidas usando la totalidad de glaciares sin fraccionamiento en grupos, mientras que los volúmenes calculados fraccionando por forma son un 3-5% mayores. También realizamos experimentos multivariable para obtener estimaciones óptimas del volumen total mediante una combinación de distintos predictores. Nuestros resultados muestran que un modelo potencial simple volumen-área explica el 98.6% de la varianza. Sólo el predictor longitud del glaciar proporciona significación estadística cuando se usa además del área del glaciar, aunque el coeficiente de determinación disminuye en comparación con el modelo más simple V-A. El predictor intervalo de altitud no proporciona información adicional cuando se usa además del área del glaciar. Nuestras estimaciones del volumen de la totalidad de glaciares de Svalbard usando las diferentes relaciones de escala obtenidas en esta tesis oscilan entre 6890 y 8106 km3, con errores relativos del orden de 6.6-8.1%. El valor medio de nuestras estimaciones, que puede ser considerado como nuestra mejor estimación del volumen, es de 7.504 km3. En términos de equivalente en nivel del mar (SLE), nuestras estimaciones corresponden a una subida potencial del nivel del mar de 17-20 mm SLE, promediando 19_2 mm SLE, donde el error corresponde al error en volumen antes indicado. En comparación, las estimaciones usando las relaciones V-A de otros autores son de 13-26 mm SLE, promediando 20 _ 2 mm SLE, donde el error representa la desviación estándar de las distintas estimaciones. ABSTRACT The final aim of the research involved in this doctoral thesis is the estimation of the total ice volume of the more than 1600 glaciers of Svalbard, in the Arctic region, and thus their potential contribution to sea-level rise under a global warming scenario. The most accurate calculations of glacier volumes are those based on ice-thicknesses measured by groundpenetrating radar (GPR). However, such measurements are not viable for very large sets of glaciers, due to their cost, logistic difficulties and time requirements, especially in polar or mountain regions. On the contrary, the calculation of glacier areas from satellite images is perfectly viable at global and regional scales, so the volume-area scaling relationships are the most useful tool to determine glacier volumes at global and regional scales, as done for Svalbard in this PhD thesis. As part of the PhD work, we have compiled an inventory of the radio-echo sounded glaciers in Svalbard, and we have performed the volume calculations for more than 80 glacier basins in Svalbard from GPR data. These volumes have been used to calibrate the volume-area relationships derived in this dissertation. Such GPR data have been obtained during fieldwork campaigns carried out by international teams, often lead by the Group of Numerical Simulation in Science and Engineering of the Technical University of Madrid, to which the PhD candidate and her supervisors belong. Furthermore, we have developed a methodology to estimate the error in the volume calculation, which includes a novel technique to calculate the interpolation error for data sets of the type produced by GPR profiling, which show very characteristic data distribution patterns but with very irregular data density. We have derived in this dissertation scaling relationships specific for Svalbard glaciers, exploring the sensitivity of the scaling parameters to different glacier morphologies and adding new variables. In particular, we did experiments aimed to verify whether scaling relationships obtained through characterization of individual glacier shape, slope and size imply significant differences in the estimated volume of the total population of Svalbard glaciers, and whether this partitioning implies any noticeable pattern in the scaling relationship parameters. Our results indicate that, for a fixed value of the factor in the scaling relationship, the exponent of the area in the volume-area relationship decreases as slope and shape increase, whereas size-based classifications do not reveal any clear trend. This means that steep slopes and cirque-type glaciers are less sensitive to changes in glacier area. Moreover, the volumes of the total population of Svalbard glaciers calculated according to partitioning in subgroups by size and slope are smaller (by 1-4%) than that obtained considering all glaciers without partitioning into subgroups, whereas the volumes calculated according to partitioning in subgroups by shape are 3-5% larger. We also did multivariate experiments attempting to optimally predict the volume of Svalbard glaciers from a combination of different predictors. Our results show that a simple power-type V-A model explains 98.6% of the variance. Only the predictor glacier length provides statistical significance when used in addition to the predictor glacier area, though the coefficient of determination decreases as compared with the simpler V-A model. The predictor elevation range did not provide any additional information when used in addition to glacier area. Our estimates of the volume of the entire population of Svalbard glaciers using the different scaling relationships that we have derived along this thesis range within 6890-8106 km3, with estimated relative errors in total volume of the order of 6.6-8.1% The average value of all of our estimates, which could be used as a best estimate for the volume, is 7,504 km3. In terms of sea-level equivalent (SLE), our volume estimates correspond to a potential contribution to sea-level rise within 17-20 mm SLE, averaging 19 _ 2 mm SLE, where the quoted error corresponds to our estimated relative error in volume. For comparison, the estimates using the V-A scaling relations found in the literature range within 13-26 mm SLE, averaging 20 _ 2 mm SLE, where the quoted error represents the standard deviation of the different estimates.

Wind tunnel study on the influence of different parapets on the roof pressure distribution of low-rise buildings

High suction loads appear on roofs of low-height buildings. The use of parapets with appropriate height at the roof edges alleviates these loads. The performance of six parapet configurations to decrease the suction loads induced on roofs by oblique winds has been studied in a low speed wind tunnel. The studied parapet configurations include vertical wall parapets, either solid or porous, and cantilevered parapets formed by a small horizontal roof close to the building roof. Low-height parapets with a medium porosity and cantilevered parapets are more efficient than solid parapets to reduce the wind suctions generated on the roofs by conical vortices.

A parametric, experimental analysis of conical vortices on curved roofs of low-rise buildings

Different methods to reduce the high suction caused by conical vortices have been reported in the literature: vertical parapets, either solid or porous, placed at the roof edges being the most analysed configuration. Another method for alleviating the high suction peaks due to conical vortices is the use of some non-standard parapet configuration like cantilever parapets. In this paper the influence of roof curvature on the conical vortex pattern appearing on a curved roof (Fig. 1) when subject to oblique winds is experimentally analysed by testing the mean pressure distribution on the curved roofs of low-rise building models in a wind tunnel. Also, the efficiency of cantilever parapets to reduce mean suction loads on curved roofs is experimentally checked. Very high suction loads have been measured on curved roofs, the magnitude of these high suction loads being significantly decreased when cantilever parapets are used. Thus, the suitability of these parapets to reduce wind pressure loads on curved roofs is demonstrated.

Influence of an upstream building on the wind-induced mean suction on the flat roof of a low-rise building

The effect of an upstream building on the suction forces on the flat roof of a low-rise building placed in the wake of the former is analyzed. The analysis has been performed by wind tunnel testing of a flat roof, low-rise building model equipped with pressure taps on the roof and different block-type buildings (only configurations where the upstream building is as high or higher than the downstream one are considered in this paper). The influence of the distance between both buildings on the wind loads on the downstream building roof is analyzed, as well as the height of the upstream one and the wind angle of incidence. Experimental results reveal that the wind load increases as the relative height of the upstream building increases, the wind load being highest for intermediate distances between buildings, when a passage between them is formed.

Urban wind energy: empirical optimization of high-rise building roof shape for the wind energy exploitation

El programa Europeo HORIZON2020 en Futuras Ciudades Inteligentes establece como objetivo que el 20% de la energía eléctrica sea generada a partir de fuentes renovables. Este objetivo implica la necesidad de potenciar la generación de energía eólica en todos los ámbitos. La energía eólica reduce drásticamente las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y evita los riesgos geo-políticos asociados al suministro e infraestructuras energéticas, así como la dependencia energética de otras regiones. Además, la generación de energía distribuida (generación en el punto de consumo) presenta significativas ventajas en términos de elevada eficiencia energética y estimulación de la economía. El sector de la edificación representa el 40% del consumo energético total de la Unión Europea. La reducción del consumo energético en este área es, por tanto, una prioridad de acuerdo con los objetivos "20-20-20" en eficiencia energética. La Directiva 2010/31/EU del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo de 19 de mayo de 2010 sobre el comportamiento energético de edificaciones contempla la instalación de sistemas de suministro energético a partir de fuentes renovables en las edificaciones de nuevo diseño. Actualmente existe una escasez de conocimiento científico y tecnológico acerca de la geometría óptima de las edificaciones para la explotación de la energía eólica en entornos urbanos. El campo tecnológico de estudio de la presente Tesis Doctoral es la generación de energía eólica en entornos urbanos. Específicamente, la optimization de la geometría de las cubiertas de edificaciones desde el punto de vista de la explotación del recurso energético eólico. Debido a que el flujo del viento alrededor de las edificaciones es exhaustivamente investigado en esta Tesis empleando herramientas de simulación numérica, la mecánica de fluidos computacional (CFD en inglés) y la aerodinámica de edificaciones son los campos científicos de estudio. El objetivo central de esta Tesis Doctoral es obtener una geometría de altas prestaciones (u óptima) para la explotación de la energía eólica en cubiertas de edificaciones de gran altura. Este objetivo es alcanzado mediante un análisis exhaustivo de la influencia de la forma de la cubierta del edificio en el flujo del viento desde el punto de vista de la explotación energética del recurso eólico empleando herramientas de simulación numérica (CFD). Adicionalmente, la geometría de la edificación convencional (edificio prismático) es estudiada, y el posicionamiento adecuado para los diferentes tipos de aerogeneradores es propuesto. La compatibilidad entre el aprovechamiento de las energías solar fotovoltaica y eólica también es analizado en este tipo de edificaciones. La investigación prosigue con la optimización de la geometría de la cubierta. La metodología con la que se obtiene la geometría óptima consta de las siguientes etapas: - Verificación de los resultados de las geometrías previamente estudiadas en la literatura. Las geometrías básicas que se someten a examen son: cubierta plana, a dos aguas, inclinada, abovedada y esférica. - Análisis de la influencia de la forma de las aristas de la cubierta sobre el flujo del viento. Esta tarea se lleva a cabo mediante la comparación de los resultados obtenidos para la arista convencional (esquina sencilla) con un parapeto, un voladizo y una esquina curva. - Análisis del acoplamiento entre la cubierta y los cerramientos verticales (paredes) mediante la comparación entre diferentes variaciones de una cubierta esférica en una edificación de gran altura: cubierta esférica estudiada en la literatura, cubierta esférica integrada geométricamente con las paredes (planta cuadrada en el suelo) y una cubierta esférica acoplada a una pared cilindrica. El comportamiento del flujo sobre la cubierta es estudiado también considerando la posibilidad de la variación en la dirección del viento incidente. - Análisis del efecto de las proporciones geométricas del edificio sobre el flujo en la cubierta. - Análisis del efecto de la presencia de edificaciones circundantes sobre el flujo del viento en la cubierta del edificio objetivo. Las contribuciones de la presente Tesis Doctoral pueden resumirse en: - Se demuestra que los modelos de turbulencia RANS obtienen mejores resultados para la simulación del viento alrededor de edificaciones empleando los coeficientes propuestos por Crespo y los propuestos por Bechmann y Sórensen que empleando los coeficientes estándar. - Se demuestra que la estimación de la energía cinética turbulenta del flujo empleando modelos de turbulencia RANS puede ser validada manteniendo el enfoque en la cubierta de la edificación. - Se presenta una nueva modificación del modelo de turbulencia Durbin k — e que reproduce mejor la distancia de recirculación del flujo de acuerdo con los resultados experimentales. - Se demuestra una relación lineal entre la distancia de recirculación en una cubierta plana y el factor constante involucrado en el cálculo de la escala de tiempo de la velocidad turbulenta. Este resultado puede ser empleado por la comunidad científica para la mejora del modelado de la turbulencia en diversas herramientas computacionales (OpenFOAM, Fluent, CFX, etc.). - La compatibilidad entre las energías solar fotovoltaica y eólica en cubiertas de edificaciones es analizada. Se demuestra que la presencia de los módulos solares provoca un descenso en la intensidad de turbulencia. - Se demuestran conflictos en el cambio de escala entre simulaciones de edificaciones a escala real y simulaciones de modelos a escala reducida (túnel de viento). Se demuestra que para respetar las limitaciones de similitud (número de Reynolds) son necesarias mediciones en edificaciones a escala real o experimentos en túneles de viento empleando agua como fluido, especialmente cuando se trata con geometrías complejas, como es el caso de los módulos solares. - Se determina el posicionamiento más adecuado para los diferentes tipos de aerogeneradores tomando en consideración la velocidad e intensidad de turbulencia del flujo. El posicionamiento de aerogeneradores es investigado en las geometrías de cubierta más habituales (plana, a dos aguas, inclinada, abovedada y esférica). - Las formas de aristas más habituales (esquina, parapeto, voladizo y curva) son analizadas, así como su efecto sobre el flujo del viento en la cubierta de un edificio de gran altura desde el punto de vista del aprovechamiento eólico. - Se propone una geometría óptima (o de altas prestaciones) para el aprovechamiento de la energía eólica urbana. Esta optimización incluye: verificación de las geometrías estudiadas en el estado del arte, análisis de la influencia de las aristas de la cubierta en el flujo del viento, estudio del acoplamiento entre la cubierta y las paredes, análisis de sensibilidad del grosor de la cubierta, exploración de la influencia de las proporciones geométricas de la cubierta y el edificio, e investigación del efecto de las edificaciones circundantes (considerando diferentes alturas de los alrededores) sobre el flujo del viento en la cubierta del edificio objetivo. Las investigaciones comprenden el análisis de la velocidad, la energía cinética turbulenta y la intensidad de turbulencia en todos los casos. ABSTRACT The HORIZON2020 European program in Future Smart Cities aims to have 20% of electricity produced by renewable sources. This goal implies the necessity to enhance the wind energy generation, both with large and small wind turbines. Wind energy drastically reduces carbon emissions and avoids geo-political risks associated with supply and infrastructure constraints, as well as energy dependence from other regions. Additionally, distributed energy generation (generation at the consumption site) offers significant benefits in terms of high energy efficiency and stimulation of the economy. The buildings sector represents 40% of the European Union total energy consumption. Reducing energy consumption in this area is therefore a priority under the "20-20-20" objectives on energy efficiency. The Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings aims to consider the installation of renewable energy supply systems in new designed buildings. Nowadays, there is a lack of knowledge about the optimum building shape for urban wind energy exploitation. The technological field of study of the present Thesis is the wind energy generation in urban environments. Specifically, the improvement of the building-roof shape with a focus on the wind energy resource exploitation. Since the wind flow around buildings is exhaustively investigated in this Thesis using numerical simulation tools, both computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and building aerodynamics are the scientific fields of study. The main objective of this Thesis is to obtain an improved (or optimum) shape of a high-rise building for the wind energy exploitation on the roof. To achieve this objective, an analysis of the influence of the building shape on the behaviour of the wind flow on the roof from the point of view of the wind energy exploitation is carried out using numerical simulation tools (CFD). Additionally, the conventional building shape (prismatic) is analysed, and the adequate positions for different kinds of wind turbines are proposed. The compatibility of both photovoltaic-solar and wind energies is also analysed for this kind of buildings. The investigation continues with the buildingroof optimization. The methodology for obtaining the optimum high-rise building roof shape involves the following stages: - Verification of the results of previous building-roof shapes studied in the literature. The basic shapes that are compared are: flat, pitched, shed, vaulted and spheric. - Analysis of the influence of the roof-edge shape on the wind flow. This task is carried out by comparing the results obtained for the conventional edge shape (simple corner) with a railing, a cantilever and a curved edge. - Analysis of the roof-wall coupling by testing different variations of a spherical roof on a high-rise building: spherical roof studied in the litera ture, spherical roof geometrically integrated with the walls (squared-plant) and spherical roof with a cylindrical wall. The flow behaviour on the roof according to the variation of the incident wind direction is commented. - Analysis of the effect of the building aspect ratio on the flow. - Analysis of the surrounding buildings effect on the wind flow on the target building roof. The contributions of the present Thesis can be summarized as follows: - It is demonstrated that RANS turbulence models obtain better results for the wind flow around buildings using the coefficients proposed by Crespo and those proposed by Bechmann and S0rensen than by using the standard ones. - It is demonstrated that RANS turbulence models can be validated for turbulent kinetic energy focusing on building roofs. - A new modification of the Durbin k — e turbulence model is proposed in order to obtain a better agreement of the recirculation distance between CFD simulations and experimental results. - A linear relationship between the recirculation distance on a flat roof and the constant factor involved in the calculation of the turbulence velocity time scale is demonstrated. This discovery can be used by the research community in order to improve the turbulence modeling in different solvers (OpenFOAM, Fluent, CFX, etc.). - The compatibility of both photovoltaic-solar and wind energies on building roofs is demonstrated. A decrease of turbulence intensity due to the presence of the solar panels is demonstrated. - Scaling issues are demonstrated between full-scale buildings and windtunnel reduced-scale models. The necessity of respecting the similitude constraints is demonstrated. Either full-scale measurements or wind-tunnel experiments using water as a medium are needed in order to accurately reproduce the wind flow around buildings, specially when dealing with complex shapes (as solar panels, etc.). - The most adequate position (most adequate roof region) for the different kinds of wind turbines is highlighted attending to both velocity and turbulence intensity. The wind turbine positioning was investigated for the most habitual kind of building-roof shapes (flat, pitched, shed, vaulted and spherical). - The most habitual roof-edge shapes (simple edge, railing, cantilever and curved) were investigated, and their effect on the wind flow on a highrise building roof were analysed from the point of view of the wind energy exploitation. - An optimum building-roof shape is proposed for the urban wind energy exploitation. Such optimization includes: state-of-the-art roof shapes test, analysis of the influence of the roof-edge shape on the wind flow, study of the roof-wall coupling, sensitivity analysis of the roof width, exploration of the aspect ratio of the building-roof shape and investigation of the effect of the neighbouring buildings (considering different surrounding heights) on the wind now on the target building roof. The investigations comprise analysis of velocity, turbulent kinetic energy and turbulence intensity for all the cases.

Estimate of the total volume of Svalbard glaciers, and their potential contribution to sea-level rise, using new regionally based scaling relationships

We present a set of new volume scaling relationships specific to Svalbard glaciers, derived from a sample of 60 volume–area pairs. Glacier volumes are computed from ground-penetrating radar (GPR)-retrieved ice thickness measurements, which have been compiled from different sources for this study. The most precise scaling models, in terms of lowest cross-validation errors, are obtained using a multivariate approach where, in addition to glacier area, glacier length and elevation range are also used as predictors. Using this multivariate scaling approach, together with the Randolph Glacier Inventory V3.2 for Svalbard and Jan Mayen, we obtain a regional volume estimate of 6700 ± 835 km3, or 17 ± 2 mm of sea-level equivalent (SLE). This result lies in the mid- to low range of recently published estimates, which show values as varied as 13 and 24 mm SLE. We assess the sensitivity of the scaling exponents to glacier characteristics such as size, aspect ratio and average slope, and find that the volume of steep-slope and cirque-type glaciers is not very sensitive to changes in glacier area.

Withdrawal of IL-7 induces Bax translocation from cytosol to mitochondria through a rise in intracellular pH

IL-7 functions as a trophic factor during T lymphocyte development by a mechanism that is partly based on the induction of Bcl-2, which protects cells from apoptosis. Here we report a mechanism by which cytokine withdrawal activates the prodeath protein Bax. On loss of IL-7 in a dependent cell line, Bax protein translocated from the cytosol to the mitochondria, where it integrated into the mitochondrial membrane. This translocation was attributable to a conformational change in the Bax protein itself. We show that a rise in intracellular pH preceded mitochondrial translocation and triggered the change in Bax conformation. Intracellular pH in the IL-7-dependent cells rose steadily to peak over pH 7.8 by 6 hr after cytokine withdrawal, paralleling the time point of Bax translocation (a similar alkalinization and Bax translocation was also observed after IL-3 withdrawal from a dependent cell line). The conformation of Bax was directly altered by pH of 7.8 or higher and was demonstrated by increased protease sensitivity, exposure of N terminus epitopes, and exposure of a hydrophobic domain in the C terminus. Eliminating charged amino acids at the C or N termini of Bax induced a conformational change similar to that induced by raising pH, implicating these residues in the pH effect. Therefore, we have shown that by either cytokine withdrawal, experimental manipulation of pH, or site-directed mutagenesis, Bax protein changes conformation, exposing membrane-seeking domains, thereby inducing mitochondrial translocation and initiating the cascade of events leading to apoptotic death.

The rise and fall of the medical mediated searcher

The relationship between the development of mediated online literature searching and the recruitment of medical librarians to fill positions as online searchers was investigated. The history of database searching by medical librarians was outlined and a content analysis of thirty-five years of job advertisements in MLA News from 1961 through 1996 was summarized. Advertisements for online searchers were examined to test the hypothesis that the growth of mediated online searching was reflected in the recruitment of librarians to fill positions as mediated online searchers in medical libraries. The advent of end-user searching was also traced to determine how this trend affected the demand for mediated online searching and job availability of online searchers. Job advertisements were analyzed to determine what skills were in demand as end-user searching replaced mediated online searching as the norm in medical libraries. Finally, the trend away from mediated online searching to support of other library services was placed in the context of new roles for medical librarians.

Miniature endplate current rise times less than 100 microseconds from improved dual recordings can be modeled with passive acetylcholine diffusion from a synaptic vesicle.

We recorded miniature endplate currents (mEPCs) using simultaneous voltage clamp and extracellular methods, allowing correction for time course measurement errors. We obtained a 20-80% rise time (tr) of approximately 80 micros at 22 degrees C, shorter than any previously reported values, and tr variability (SD) with an upper limit of 25-30 micros. Extracellular electrode pressure can increase tr and its variability by 2- to 3-fold. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we modeled passive acetylcholine diffusion through a vesicle fusion pore expanding radially at 25 nm x ms(-1) (rapid, from endplate omega figure appearance) or 0.275 nm x ms(-1) (slow, from mast cell exocytosis). Simulated mEPCs obtained with rapid expansion reproduced tr and the overall shape of our experimental mEPCs, and were similar to simulated mEPCs obtained with instant acetylcholine release. We conclude that passive transmitter diffusion, coupled with rapid expansion of the fusion pore, is sufficient to explain the time course of experimentally measured synaptic currents with trs of less than 100 micros.

The African-American Islamic Renaissance and the Rise of the Nation of Islam

This dissertation examines African-American Islamic culture from 1920 through 1959, a period I label the "African-American Islamic Renaissance" (AAIR). The AAIR is characterized by a significant increase in interest in Islam, extreme diversity in views about Islam, and the absence of a single organization dominating African-American Islamic culture for a significant amount of time. Previous works dealing with African-American Islam in this period have failed to fully recognize these features, particularly the last of these. As a result, explanations for the rise of the Nation of Islam (NOI) have not satisfactorily explained why it was only the NOI--and not other Islamic groups that were more popular than the NOI up until the mid-1950s--that became a "mass movement," gaining the allegiance of tens of thousands of African Americans. There has been some tendency, for instance, to assume that the NOI was the most popular African-American Islamic group by the early 1950s, a notion that is probably an inference drawn from two other popular but inaccurate assumptions: that the NOI's rise was due primarily to its radical racialized doctrines and its charismatic leaders, particularly Malcolm X, who became a popular minister for the group in the early 1950s. I argue, however, that the NOI was in fact not the most popular African-American Islamic group until at least 1955, and even as late as 1959 its official membership numbers were not particularly large by AAIR standards. Also, its doctrines were not especially unique in the AAIR, nor was its having extremely charismatic leaders. I contend that the success of the NOI in the mid-to-late 1950s was the result of three levels of changes at the time: internal, external in the AAIR community, and external in the broader U.S, culture.

Consequences of the Past: China's Rise to Superpower Status and its Impact on the United States

This paper investigates the impact of how the Chinese government will react to the West if China regains its superpower status. Using traditional research methods, this paper traced the cultural misunderstandings that initiated the confrontation with the West and the resulting humiliation China suffered for nearly 175 years by the Western powers. The findings of this paper show that China bitterly resents the treatment suffered during the Colonial period. Although certain factions in China wish to punish the West, this paper argues that the interconnected nature of the world's economy will force China to temper its feelings and build bridges with the West as it attains superpower status.

Fixed Mydriatic Pupil Associated with an Intraocular Pressure Rise as a Complication of the Implant of a Phakic Refractive Lens (PRL)

We describe a case report of a patient that was implanted with a posterior chamber phakic intraocular lens (Phakic Refractive Lens, PRL) for the correction of moderate myopia and who developed postoperatively a fixed mydriasis compatible with an Urrets-Zavalia Syndrome (UZS). Specifically, a sudden acute increase of IOP in the left eye was observed in the immediate postoperative period. After IOP stabilization, the refractive result was good, but a fixed and mydriatic pupil appeared. This condition led the patient to experience visual discomfort, halos, and glare associated with high levels of higher-order aberrations in spite of the good visual result. A tinted-contact lens was fitted in order to minimize those symptoms. The UZS should be considered as a possible complication after implantation of posterior chamber phakic intraocular lenses.