Ionic selectivity of native ATP-activated (P2X) receptor channels in dissociated neurones from rat parasympathetic ganglia

1. The relative permeability of the native P2X receptor channel to monovalent and divalent inorganic and organic cations was determined from reversal potential measurements of ATP-evoked currents in parasympathetic neurones dissociated from rat submandibular ganglia using the dialysed whole-cell patch clamp technique. 2. The P2X receptor-channel exhibited weak selectivity among the alkali metals with a selectivity sequence of Na+ > Li+ > Cs+ > Rb+ > K+, and permeability ratios relative to Cs+ (P-X/P-Cs) ranging from 1. 11 to 0.86. 3. The selectivity for the divalent alkaline earth cations was also weak with the sequence Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+ > Mn2+ > Mg2+. ATP-evoked currents were strongly inhibited when the extracellular divalent cation concentration was increased. 4, The calculated permeability ratios of different ammonium cations are higher than those of the alkali metal cations. The permeability sequence obtained for the saturated organic cations is inversely correlated with the size of the cation. The unsaturated organic cations have a higher permeability than that predicted by molecular size. 5. Acidification to pH 6.2 increased the ATP-induced current amplitude twofold, whereas alkalization to 8.2 and 9.2 markedly reduced current amplitude. Cell dialysis with either anti-P2X(2) and/or anti-P2X(4) but not anti-P2X(1) antibodies attenuated the ATP-evoked current amplitude. Taken together, these data are consistent with homomeric and/or heteromeric P2X(2) and P2X(4) receptor subtypes expressed in rat submandibular neurones. 6. The permeability ratios for the series of monovalent organic cations, with the exception of unsaturated cations, were approximately related to the ionic size. The relative permeabilities of the monovalent inoganic and organic cations tested are similar to those reported previously for cloned rat P2X2 receptors expressed in mammalian cells.

Alpha beta lineage-committed thymocytes can be rescued by the gamma delta T cell receptor (TCR) in the absence of TCR beta chain.

Commitment of the alpha beta and gamma delta T cell lineages within the thymus has been studied in T cell receptor (TCR)-transgenic and TCR mutant murine strains. TCR gamma delta-transgenic or TCR beta knockout mice, both of which are unable to generate TCR alpha beta-positive T cells, develop phenotypically alpha beta-like thymocytes in significant proportions. We provide evidence that in the absence of functional TCR beta protein, the gamma delta TCR can promote the development of alpha beta-like thymocytes, which, however, do not expand significantly and do not mature into gamma delta T cells. These results show that commitment to the alpha beta lineage can be determined independently of the isotype of the TCR, and suggest that alpha beta versus gamma delta T cell lineage commitment is principally regulated by mechanisms distinct from TCR-mediated selection. To accommodate our data and those reported previously on the effect of TCR gamma and delta gene rearrangements on alpha beta T cell development, we propose a model in which lineage commitment occurs independently of TCR gene rearrangement.

Glucose competence of the hepatoportal vein sensor requires the presence of an activated glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor.

Activation of the hepatoportal glucose sensors by portal glucose infusion leads to increased glucose clearance and induction of hypoglycemia. Here, we investigated whether glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) could modulate the activity of these sensors. Mice were therefore infused with saline (S-mice) or glucose (P-mice) through the portal vein at a rate of 25 mg/kg. min. In P-mice, glucose clearance increased to 67.5 +/- 3.7 mg/kg. min as compared with 24.1 +/- 1.5 mg/kg. min in S-mice, and glycemia decreased from 5.0 +/- 0.1 to 3.3 +/- 0.1 mmol/l at the end of the 3-h infusion period. Coinfusion of GLP-1 with glucose into the portal vein at a rate of 5 pmol/kg. min (P-GLP-1 mice) did not increase the glucose clearance rate (57.4 +/- 5.0 ml/kg. min) and hypoglycemia (3.8 +/- 0.1 mmol/l) observed in P-mice. In contrast, coinfusion of glucose and the GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin-(9-39) into the portal vein at a rate of 0.5 pmol/kg. min (P-Ex mice) reduced glucose clearance to 36.1 +/- 2.6 ml/kg. min and transiently increased glycemia to 9.2 +/- 0.3 mmol/l at 60 min of infusion before it returned to the fasting level (5.6 +/- 0.3 mmol/l) at 3 h. When glucose and exendin-(9-39) were infused through the portal and femoral veins, respectively, glucose clearance increased to 70.0 +/- 4.6 ml/kg. min and glycemia decreased to 3.1 +/- 0.1 mmol/l, indicating that exendin-(9-39) has an effect only when infused into the portal vein. Finally, portal vein infusion of glucose in GLP-1 receptor(-/-) mice failed to increase the glucose clearance rate (26.7 +/- 2.9 ml/kg. min). Glycemia increased to 8.5 +/- 0.5 mmol/l at 60 min and remained elevated until the end of the glucose infusion (8.2 +/- 0.4 mmol/l). Together, our data show that the GLP-1 receptor is part of the hepatoportal glucose sensor and that basal fasting levels of GLP-1 sufficiently activate the receptor to confer maximum glucose competence to the sensor. These data demonstrate an important extrapancreatic effect of GLP-1 in the control of glucose homeostasis.

Selectively impaired development of intestinal T cell receptor gamma delta+ cells and liver CD4+ NK1+ T cell receptor alpha beta+ cells in T cell factor-1-deficient mice.

T cell factor-1 (Tcf-1) is a transcription factor that binds to a sequence motif present in several T cell-specific enhancer elements. In Tcf-1-deficient (Tcf-1-/-) mice, thymocyte development is partially blocked at the transition from the CD4-8+ immature single-positive stage to the CD4+8+ double-positive stage, resulting in a marked decrease of mature peripheral T cells in lymph node and spleen. We report here that the development of most intestinal TCR gamma delta+ cells and liver CD4+ NK1.1+TCR alpha beta+ (NK1+T) cells, which are believed to be of extrathymic origin, is selectively impaired in Tcf-1-/- mice. In contrast, thymic and thymus-derived (splenic) TCR gamma delta+ cells are present in normal numbers in Tcf-1-/- mice, as are other T cell subsets in intestine and liver. Collectively, our data suggest that Tcf-1 is differentially required for the development of some extrathymic T cell subsets, including intestinal TCR gamma delta+ cells and liver CD4+ NK1+T cells.

The role of the T-cell receptor (TCR) in alpha beta/gamma delta lineage commitment: clues from intracellular TCR staining.

T cells belong to two mutually exclusive lineages expressing either alpha beta or gamma delta T-cell receptors (TCR). Although alpha beta and gamma delta cells are known to share a common precursor the role of TCR rearrangement and specificity in the lineage commitment process is controversial. Instructive lineage commitment models endow the alpha beta or gamma delta TCR with a deterministic role in lineage choice, whereas separate lineage models invoke TCR-independent lineage commitment followed by TCR-dependent selection and maturation of alpha beta and gamma delta cells. Here we review the published data pertaining to the role of the TCR in alpha beta/gamma delta lineage commitment and provide some additional information obtained from recent intracellular TCR staining studies. We conclude that a variant of the separate lineage model is best able to accommodate all of the available experimental results.

Deletion of delta-opioid receptor in mice alters skin differentiation and delays wound healing.

In addition to their well-known antinociceptive action, opioids can modulate non-neuronal functions, such as immune activity and physiology of different cell types. Several findings suggest that the delta-opioid receptor (DOR) and its endogenous ligands (enkephalins) are important players in cell differentiation and proliferation. Here we show the expression of DOR in mouse skin and human skin cultured fibroblasts and keratinocytes using RT-PCR. In DOR knock-out (KO) mice, a phenotype of thinner epidermis and higher expression of cell differentiation marker cytokeratin 10 (CK 10) were observed compared with wild type (WT). Using a burn wound model, significant wound healing delay (about 2 days) and severe epidermal hypertrophy were shown at the wound margin of DOR KO mice. This wound healing delay was further investigated by immunohistochemistry using markers for proliferation, differentiation, re-epithelialization, and dermal repair (CK 6, CK 10, and collagen IV). The levels of all these markers were increased in wounds of KO mice compared with WT. During the wound healing, the epidermal thickness in KO mice augments faster and exceeds that of the WT by day 3. These results suggest an essential role of DOR in skin differentiation, proliferation, and migration, factors that are important for wound healing.

T cell receptor alpha gene rearrangement and transcription in adult thymic gamma delta cells.

T cells belong to two separate lineages based on surface expression of alpha beta or gamma delta T cell receptors (TCR). Since during thymus development TCR beta, gamma, and delta genes rearrange before alpha genes, and gamma delta cells appear earlier than alpha beta cells, it has been assumed that gamma delta cells are devoid of TCR alpha rearrangements. We show here that this is not the case, since mature adult, but not fetal, thymic gamma delta cells undergo VJ alpha rearrangements more frequently than immature alpha beta lineage thymic precursors. Sequence analysis shows VJ alpha rearrangements in gamma delta cells to be mostly (70%) nonproductive. Furthermore, VJ alpha rearrangements in gamma delta cells are transcribed normally and, as shown by analysis of TCR beta-/- mice, occur independently of productive VDJ beta rearrangements. These data are interpreted in the context of a model in which precursors of alpha beta and gamma delta cells differ in their ability to express a functional pre-TCR complex.

Estrogen receptor-mediated signalling in female mice is locally activated in response to wounding.

Estrogen deprivation is associated with delayed healing, while Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) accelerates acute wound healing and protects against development of chronic wounds. Estrogen exerts its effects on healing via numerous cell types by signalling through the receptors ERα and ERβ, which bind to the Estrogen Responsive Element (ERE) and initiate gene transcription. The ERE-luciferase transgenic mouse model has been influential in assessing real-time in vivo estrogen receptor activation across a range of tissues and pathologies. Using this model we demonstrate novel temporally regulated peri-wound activation of estrogen signalling in female mice. Using histological methods we reveal that this signal is specifically localised to keratinocytes of the neoepidermis and wound margin dermal cells. Moreover using pharmacological agonists we reveal that ERβ induces ERE-mediated signal in both epidermal and dermal cells while ERα induces ERE-mediated signal in dermal cells alone. Collectively these novel data demonstrate rapid and regional activation of estrogen signalling in wounded skin. A more complete understanding of local hormonal signalling during repair is essential for the focussed development of new therapies for wound healing.

CD3 delta establishes a functional link between the T cell receptor and CD8.

T cells expressing T cell receptor (TCR) complexes that lack CD3 delta, either due to deletion of the CD3 delta gene, or by replacement of the connecting peptide of the TCR alpha chain, exhibit severely impaired positive selection and TCR-mediated activation of CD8 single-positive T cells. Because the same defects have been observed in mice expressing no CD8 beta or tailless CD8 beta, we examined whether CD3 delta serves to couple TCR.CD3 with CD8. To this end we used T cell hybridomas and transgenic mice expressing the T1 TCR, which recognizes a photoreactive derivative of the PbCS 252-260 peptide in the context of H-2K(d). We report that, in thymocytes and hybridomas expressing the T1 TCR.CD3 complex, CD8 alpha beta associates with the TCR. This association was not observed on T1 hybridomas expressing only CD8 alpha alpha or a CD3 delta(-) variant of the T1 TCR. CD3 delta was selectively co-immunoprecipitated with anti-CD8 antibodies, indicating an avid association of CD8 with CD3 delta. Because CD8 alpha beta is a raft constituent, due to this association a fraction of TCR.CD3 is raft-associated. Cross-linking of these TCR-CD8 adducts results in extensive TCR aggregate formation and intracellular calcium mobilization. Thus, CD3 delta couples TCR.CD3 with raft-associated CD8, which is required for effective activation and positive selection of CD8(+) T cells.

Étude du rôle de la tyrosine kinase Src dans la régulation de la signalisation des récepteurs opioïdes delta (∆OR)

Les opioïdes sont les analgésiques les plus efficaces mais leur utilisation est limitée par la tolérance, un processus lié en partie à la désensibilisation des récepteurs. Le rôle de la présente étude était de mieux caractériser le processus de désensibilisation des récepteurs et plus particulièrement, d’étudier le rôle de la tyrosine kinase Src sur la régulation de la signalisation des récepteurs delta opioïdes. Nos résultats démontrent que l’inhibition pharmacologique avec PP2 (à faible concentration : 20- 40µM) ou encore l’inhibition moléculaire de la kinase avec de faibles concentrations d’ADN d’un mutant dominant inactif de Src (0,2µg/ml) potentialise l’amplitude et la durée de l’activation de la cascade ERK lorsqu’un agoniste, DPDPE (1µM; 5 min), se lie aux récepteurs. Nous avons également démontré que de fortes concentrations d’inhibiteurs de Src (80 et 100µM de PP2 ou 1µg/ml d’ADN du mutant dominant négatif) bloquent la cascade des MAPK suivant la stimulation de DOR par l’agoniste DPDPE. Ces observations indiquent que Src a un effet biphasique sur l’activité de ERK : l’inhibition complète de Src inhibe l’activité de la cascade MAPK alors qu’une inhibition modérée potentialise cette même cascade. Nous pensons aussi que de fortes concentrations des bloqueurs de Src interfèrent avec l’activation de ERK alors que de faibles concentrations interfèrent avec la désensibilisation des récepteurs. Cette possibilité a été testée à l’aide d’essais d’accumulation d’AMPc qui visaient à évaluer l’effet des bloqueurs de Src (PP2, 20 µM; 1h) sur la désensibilisation induite par un agoniste. L'activation de DOR par DPDPE inhibe la production d’AMPc, préalablement stimulée par du forskolin, de façon dose-dépendante. Le maximum d'inhibition observé est de 61%, mais lors d’un prétraitement au DPDPE (1 µM, 30 min) l’inhibition maximale est réduite à 72% de l’inhibition initiale observée. Cependant, un prétraitement des cellules au PP2 (20µM pendant 1 heure) avant d’effectuer la désensibilisation protège contre cette désensibilisation. L’effet protecteur des bloqueurs de Src n’entraîne pas de changement au niveau de l’internalisation des DOR mais l’altération de leur internalisation via un mutant tronqué du DOR ou via un milieu sucré hypertonique (0.4M de saccharose) réduit cette protection. Ces données suggèrent alors que l’internalisation optimale du récepteur est nécessaire pour que l’effet protecteur prenne place. Nous concluons donc que Src contribue à la désensibilisation de DOR après que l’internalisation du DOR soit survenue.

Étude de la régulation de l'activité du ligand Delta dans le cadre de la signalisation Notch

La voie de signalisation Notch est conservée au cours de l'évolution. Elle joue un rôle clé dans le développement, et elle est impliquée dans de nombreuses décisions de destin cellulaire, dans le maintien des cellules souches, et dans le contrôle de la prolifération et de la différenciation cellulaires. Une dérégulation de la signalisation Notch est impliquée dans diverses maladies et cancers, y compris les tumeurs solides, comme les cancers du sein et du col de l'utérus, et les leucémies, comme la Leucémie Aiguë Lymphoblastique des cellules T (LAL-T). Notch est un récepteur transmembranaire activé par des ligands transmembranaires de la famille DSL (Delta/Serrate/Lag-2). Bien que plusieurs mutations oncogéniques ont été identifiées au niveau du récepteur Notch, de nombreux cancers modulés par Notch demeurent ligand-dépendants. Étonnamment, les mécanismes moléculaires régulant l'activation du ligand sont encore relativement peu caractérisés par rapport à ceux qui régissent le récepteur Notch lui-même. Utilisant un essai de co-culture avec un rapporteur luciférase de Notch, nous avons effectué le premier crible d'ARNi pan-génomique visant spécifiquement à identifier des régulateurs des ligands de Notch dans la cellule émettrice du signal. Nous avons ainsi pu découvrir de nouvelles classes de régulateurs communs pour les ligands Delta-like1 et 4. Ces régulateurs comprennent des inhibiteurs de protéases, des facteurs de transcription, et des gènes divers à fonction inconnue, tels que Tmem128 « Transmembrane protein 128 », ou à fonction préalablement caractérisée tels que la co-chaperonne moléculaire Cdc37 « Cell division cycle 37 homolog ». Par la suite, nous avons développé des cribles secondaires fonctionnels où nous avons démontré l'importance de ces régulateurs pour des événements Notch-dépendants, comme la différenciation des cellules T normales, et la survie des cellules souches pré-leucémiques isolées à partir d'un modèle murin de LAL-T. En outre, nous avons prouvé que les régulateurs les plus forts du crible de survie sont également nécessaires pour l'activité d'auto-renouvellement des cellules souches pré-leucémiques. Finalement, nous avons entamé une caractérisation moléculaire préliminaire de deux régulateurs nouvellement identifiés; Tmem128 et Cdc37 afin d'étudier leur mécanisme d'action sur les ligands. En conclusion, cette étude nous a permis d'identifier de nouveaux régulateurs de la voie Notch qui pourraient servir de cibles thérapeutiques potentielles dans les cancers; tel qu'illustré par le modèle LAL-T. La compréhension des détails moléculaires sous-jacents aux fonctions de ces régulateurs sera essentielle afin de développer des inhibiteurs pharmacologiques pour bloquer leur action et entraver la signalisation Notch dans le cancer.

Differential activation of protein kinase C isoforms by endothelin-1 and phenylephrine and subsequent stimulation of p42 and p44 mitogen-activated protein kinases in ventricular myocytes cultured from neonatal rat hearts.

The translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms PKC-alpha, PKC-delta, PKC-epsilon, and PKC-zeta from soluble to particulate fractions was studied in ventricular cardiomyocytes cultured from neonatal rats. Endothelin-1 (ET-1) caused a rapid ETA receptor-mediated translocation of PKC-delta and PKC-epsilon (complete in 0.5-1 min). By 3-5 min, both isoforms were returning to the soluble fraction, but a greater proportion of PKC-epsilon remained associated with the particulate fraction. The EC50 of translocation for PKC-delta was 11-15 nM ET-1 whereas that for PKC-epsilon was 1.4-1.7 nM. Phenylephrine caused a rapid translocation of PKC-epsilon (EC50 = 0.9 microM) but the proportion lost from the soluble fraction was less than with ET-1. Translocation of PKC-delta was barely detectable with phenylephrine. Neither agonist caused any consistent translocation of PKC-alpha or PKC-zeta. Activation of p42 and p44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) by ET-1 or phenylephrine followed more slowly (complete in 3-5 min). Phosphorylation of p42-MAPK occurred simultaneously with its activation. The proportion of the total p42-MAPK pool phosphorylated in response to ET-1 (50%) was greater than with phenylephrine (20%). In addition to activation of MAPK, an unidentified p85 protein kinase was activated by ET-1 in the soluble fraction whereas an unidentified p58 protein kinase was activated in the particulate fraction.

Adrenergic receptor stimulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade and cardiac hypertrophy.

Phenylephrine and noradrenaline (alpha-adrenergic agonism) or isoprenaline (beta-adrenergic agonism) stimulated protein synthesis rates, increased the activity of the atrial natriuretic factor gene promoter and activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). The EC50 for MAPK activation by noradrenaline was 2-4 microM and that for isoprenaline was 0.2-0.3 microM. Maximal activation of MAPK by isoprenaline was inhibited by the beta-adrenergic antagonist, propranolol, whereas the activation by noradrenaline was inhibited by the alpha1-adrenergic antagonist, prazosin. FPLC on a Mono-Q column separated two peaks of MAPK (p42MAPK and p44MAPK) and two peaks of MAPK-activating activity (MEK) activated by isoprenaline or noradrenaline. Prolonged phorbol ester exposure partially down-regulated the activation of MAPK by noradrenaline but not by isoprenaline. This implies a role for protein kinase C in MAPK activation by noradrenaline but not isoprenaline. A role for cyclic AMP in activation of the MAPK pathway was eliminated when other agonists that elevate cyclic AMP in the cardiac myocyte did not activate MAPK. In contrast, MAPK was activated by exposure to ionomycin, Bay K8644 or thapsigargin that elevate intracellular Ca2+. Furthermore, depletion of extracellular Ca2+ concentrations with bis-(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-NNN'N'-tetra-acetic acid (BAPTA) or blocking of the L-type Ca2+ channel with nifepidine or verapamil inhibited the response to isoprenaline without inhibiting the responses to noradrenaline. We conclude that alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonists can activate the MEK/MAPK pathway in the heart by different signalling pathways. Elevation of intracellular Ca2+ rather than cyclic AMP appears important in the activation of MAPK by isoprenaline in the cardiac myocyte.

Stimulation of phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis, protein kinase C translocation, and mitogen-activated protein kinase activity by bradykinin in rat ventricular myocytes: dissociation from the hypertrophic response.

In ventricular myocytes cultured from neonatal rat hearts, bradykinin (BK), kallidin or BK(1-8) [(Des-Arg9)BK] stimulated PtdinsP2 hydrolysis by 3-4-fold. EC50 values were 6 nM (BK), 2 nM (kallidin), and 14 microM [BK(1-8)]. BK or kallidin stimulated the rapid (less than 30 s) translocation of more than 80% of the novel protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms nPKC-delta and nPKC-epsilon from the soluble to the particulate fraction. EC50 values for nPKC-delta translocation by BK or kallidin were 10 and 2 nM respectively. EC50 values for nPKC-epsilon translocation by BK or kallidin were 2 and 0.6 nM respectively. EC50 values for the translocation of nPKC-delta and nPKC-epsilon by BK(1-8) were more than 5 microM. The classical PKC, cPKC-alpha, and the atypical PKC, nPKC-zeta, did not translocate. BK caused activation and phosphorylation of p42-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (maximal at 3-5 min, 30-35% of p42-MAPK phosphorylated). p44-MAPK was similarly activated. EC50 values for p42/p44-MAPK activation by BK were less than 1 nM whereas values for BK(1-8) were more than 10 microM. The order of potency [BK approximately equal to kallidin > BK (1-8)] for the stimulation of PtdInsP2 hydrolysis, nPKC-delta and nPKC-epsilon translocation, and p42/p44-MAPK activities suggests involvement of the B2 BK receptor subtype. In addition, stimulation of all three processes by BK was inhibited by the B2BK receptor-selective antagonist HOE140 but not by the B1-selective antagonist Leu8BK(1-8). Exposure of cells to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate for 24 h inhibited subsequent activation of p42/p44-MAPK by BK suggesting participation of nPKC (and possibly cPKC) isoforms in the activation process. Thus, like hypertrophic agents such as endothelin-1 (ET-1) and phenylephrine (PE), BK activates PtdInsP2 hydrolysis, translocates nPKC-delta, and nPKC-epsilon, and activates p42/p44-MAPK. However, in comparison with ET-1 and PE, BK was only weakly hypertrophic as assessed by cell morphology and patterns of gene expression. This difference could not be attributed to dissimilarities between the duration of activation of p42/p44-MAPK by BK or ET-1. Thus activation of these signalling pathways alone may be insufficient to induce a powerful hypertrophic response.