Tab. 6+7: Altitudes and variations of altitudes in the area of the Filchner and Neumayer Stations

The determination of the strain and velocity behaviour of the ice surface near the two German Antarctic Stations on Filchner/Ronne and Ekström ice shelves was performed by the use of various geodetic measuring techniques. The relative positions and heights of control points valid for reference data were deduced from terrestrial observations (horizontal and vertical angle selectro optical distances). After a second sampling of data, these values served as the basis for the deformation analyses. Doppler-Satellite-observations (Navy Navigation Satellite System) made absolute positioning (latitude, longitude, height) of special points possible. These Doppler observations, supported by azimuth measurements (gyro-theodolite and sun observations) provided the datum of control networks (translations and orientation). After the repetition of these observations, the drift rates and azimuths of the control points as wenas the rotanon rates of the surface elements could be given. From vertical angles and horizontal distances differences in height end refraction coefficients were calculated. On days without clouds the refraction coefflcients increased by arnounts of up to 3.0 (in extreme cases up to 5.0). Distances over 1 km have to be subdivided to reach a standard deviation level of an heigh: difference better than 0.05 m. In order to determine the heterögeneity of refraction, some height differences should be measured with higher accuracy end-by subdivision of distances.

Colored dissolved organic matter (cDOM) absorption measurements in terrestrial water objects of Yamal, Yavai and Gydan Peninsula

The datasets present measurements of cDOM absorption in lakes, rivers and streams of Yamal and Gydan Peninsula area during the summer periods from 2012-2014 and 2016. In summer seasons of 2012 - 2013 water samples was collected during "Yamal-Arctic" Expedition. All of the research areas were located near the coastline of Yamal, Yavay, and Gydan Peninsula and Bely Island. In 2012 water samples from rivers, lakes and streams were taken near New Port, Cape Kamenny and Tambey settlements and in basins (water catchments) of the Sabetta, Seyakha, Yuribey (Baydaratskaya Bay, Gydan Peninsula) and Mongocheyakha rivers. In 2013 water samples from rivers, lakes and streams were taken in the Yavai Peninsula, Yayne Vong bay and in the basins (water catchments) of the Sabetta, Mongocheyakha and Yuribey (Gydan Peninsula) rivers. In 2014 lakes were sampled in the Erkuta River basin, south of Yamal Peninsula. In 2016 lakes and rivers were sampled it the Erkuta River basin and Polar Ural area. cDOM is operationally defined by the chosen filter pore size. Samples have been consistently filtrated through 0.7 µm pore size glas fibre filters. cDOM filtrates have been stored in darkness and have been measured after the expedition using the dual-beam Specord200 laboratory spectrometer (Jena Analytik) at the Otto Schmidt Laboratory OSL, Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia. The OSL cDOM protocol (Heim and Roessler, 2016) prescribes 3 Absorbance (A) measurements per sample from UV to 750 nm against ultra-pure water. The absorption coefficient, a, is calculated by a = 2.303A/L, where L is the pathlength of the cuvette [m], and the factor 2.303 converts log10 to loge. The output of the calculation is a continuous spectrum of a. The cDOM a spectra are used to determine the exponential slope value for specific wavelength ranges, S by fitting the data between min and max wavelength to an exponential function. We provide cDOM absorption coefficients for the wavelengths 254, 260, 350, 375, 400, 412, 440, 443 nm [1/m] and Slope values for three different UV, VIS, wavelength ranges: 275 to 295 nm, 350 to 400 nm, 300 to 500 nm [1/m]. All data were carried out by scientists from Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute and Saint Petersburg State University of Russia during "Yamal-Arctic" expeditions in 2012-2013, RFBR project No 14-04-10065 in 2014, No 14-05-00787 in 2016.

In-situ geotechnical measurements with the dynamic penetrometer Nimrod on the continental shelf off the Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand

We tested the ability of a small dynamic penetrometer, Nimrod, to infer geotechnical properties of sediment mixtures in the inner shelf. The penetrometer is light and easy to operate, and its operation by scuba divers ensures a greater degree of precision than ship-based penetrometer deployments. We have studied selected positions along a sorted bedform (~ 100 m wide) on the continental shelf off the Coromandel Peninsula close to Tairua, North Island of New Zealand, and additionally took sediment samples at the exact positions of penetrometer impact, also by scuba divers. The derived dynamic penetrometer signatures (i) measured deceleration of the probe and estimated quasi-static bearing capacity as a measure of sediment strength, (ii) reflected changes in grain-size distribution ranging from very fine to very coarse sands, and (iii) revealed the uppermost seafloor stratification (top layer 2-6 cm) potentially being an indicator for sediment dynamics. In this manner, the device proved to be suitable for spatially fine-scaled surveys using divers' support and might deliver complementary information about sediment dynamics, in this case sorted-bedform maintenance.

Mass balance measurements on King George Island ice cap in 2007 and 2008

The Antarctic Peninsula has been identified as a region of rapid on-going climate change with impacts on the cryosphere. The knowledge of glacial changes and freshwater budgets resulting from intensified glacier melt is an important boundary condition for many biological and integrated earth system science approaches. We provide a case study on glacier and mass balance changes for the ice cap of King George Island. The area loss between 2000 and 2008 amounted to about 20 km**2 (about 1.6% of the island area) and compares to glacier retreat rates observed in previous years. Measured net accumulation rates for two years (2007 and 2008) show a strong interannual variability with maximum net accumulation rates of 4950 mm w.e./a and 3184 mm w.e./a, respectively. These net accumulation rates are at least 4 times higher than reported mean values (1926-95) from an ice core. An elevation dependent precipitation rate of 343 mm w.e./a (2007) and 432 mm w.e./a (2008) per 100 m elevation increase was observed. Despite these rather high net accumulation rates on the main ice cap, consistent surface lowering was observed at elevations below 270 m above ellipsoid over an 11-year period. These DGPS records reveal a linear dependence of surface lowering with altitude with a maximum annual surface lowering rate of 1.44 m/a at 40 m and -0.20 m/a at 270 m above ellipsoid. These results fit well to observations by other authors and surface lowering rates derived from the ICESat laser altimeter. Assuming that climate conditions of the past 11 years continue, the small ice cap of Bellingshausen Dome will disappear in about 285 years.

Annual average Sr/Ca measurements from Porites lutea coral at Ha'afera Island, Tonga

In the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), the variability in a sub-seasonally resolved microatoll Porites colony Sr/Ca record from Tonga and a previously published high-resolution record from Fiji are strongly influenced by sea surface temperature (SST) over the calibration period from 1981 to 2004 (R^2 = 0.67 - 0.68). However, the Sr/Ca-derived SST correlation to instrumental SST decreases back in time. The lower frequency secular trend (~1°C) and decadal-scale (~2 - 3°C) modes in Sr/Ca-derived SST are almost two times larger than that observed in instrumental SST. The coral Sr/Ca records suggest that local effects on SST generate larger amplitude variability than gridded SST products indicate. Reconstructed d18O of seawater (d18Osw) at these sites correlate with instrumental sea surface salinity (SSS; r = 0.64 - 0.67) but not local precipitation (r = -0.10 to - 0.22) demonstrating that the advection and mixing of different salinity water masses may be the predominant control on d18Osw in this region. The Sr/Ca records indicate SST warming over the last 100 years and appears to be related to the expansion of the western Pacific warm pool (WPWP) including an increasing rate of expansion in the last ~20 years. The reconstructed d18Osw over the last 100 years also shows surface water freshening across the SPCZ. The warming and freshening of the surface ocean in our study area suggests that the SPCZ has been shifting (expanding) southeast, possibly related to the southward shift and intensification of the South Pacific gyre over the last 50 years in response to strengthened westerly winds.

Primary productivity and phytoplankton pigment measurements in the North Sea

During the culmination of the phytoplankton spring bloom in the Fladen Ground area in April-Mai 1976, gross primary production was between 1500 and 2000 mg particulate C m**-2 day**-1, at a crop density (mainly diatoms of the genus Chaetoceros) of about 1500-3500 mg C m**-2. Estimates of the C:chlorophyll a ratio in living cells were much lower than those reported in the literature, possibly because part of what is measured as "chlorophyll a" by the common fluorometric method is associated with particles that are not reported as cells. Most of the dark 14C fixation during the bloom's climax was due to abiotic processes. Excretion of 14C-labeled carbohydrates did not account for a significant fraction of the total photosynthetic rate. The low crop after the bloom period, in June, corresponded with nutrient depletion of the euphotic zone. The low photosynthetic efficiency in June may have been a gross underestimate. The presence of relatively high concentrations of chlorophyll derivatives signifies that the algal crop was consumed by heterotrophs, but at a lower rate in April/May than during the June cruise when particularly high molar ratios of phaeophorbide a and phaeophytin a relative to chlorophyll a were found. The high respiratory rate relative to autotrophic production in June manifested itself also in high dark 14C fixation values. The high concentration of phaeophorbide a in the upper 40 m and its scarcity below this depth during the spring bloom climax in April/May implies that copepod grazing at that time took place principally in the euphotic zone. The remarkably high concentration of chlorophyllide a in the surface layer during the bloom period indicates that the part of the crop that was destroyed by the grazers while eating was occasionally as high as the part that was actually ingested.

Oceanographical and meterological observations in the Westafrican area of upwelling during the 'Deutsche Nordatlantische Expedition' 1937

In 1937 the "Meteor" performed the cruises of the first part of the "Deutsche Nordatlantische Expedition". This publication treats seven stations of three-day-anchoring occupied during that time, five of which are located on the shelf, one on the continental slope and one on a ridge between the Capverde islands. The Bohnecke current meter, an instrument developed for the expedition, is described briefly and it's accuracy studied by comparing the measurements of two instruments which operated simultaneously at the same depth. It is shown that it is very sensitive for movements of the anchored ship because of the very short measuring intervall (2 minutes). The influence of the ship's movements could not be eliminated completely, the mode of using the instrument at different depths being unsuitable for this. Considering the stratification the accuracy of it's representation by the mean temperature and salinity distributionis studied. It is shown that under certain conditions a distribution estimated from observed values gives more exact results. This especially applies to the TS-diagram. Station Meteor336, located on the shelf near Cape Juby, shows temperatures 4 °C less than the open ocean and so belongs to the area of upwelling. During the observation period, however, internal tides are prominent. The diurnal component is of considerable influence, the distinction from inertial oscillations (25.5 hours) not being possible, however. Station Meteor341, on the shelf off Spanish-Sahara, gives an excellent example of the movements in the centre of the area of upwelling. Changing it's direction by 45° at the beginning of the measurements, the wind causes a change of current direction at all depths which, after some inertial oscillations (period 28.3 hours), settles down to a final value. At the beginning and the end of the observations the current at the upper depths is directed off-shore, the angle between current and wind being 22°, while at the lower depths it is orientated towards the shore. The depth of the upper homogenous layer gives the origin of the water transported upwards When during the inertial oscillations the current goes offshore at all depths temporarily, a sudden disturbance occurs in the temperature measurements. Station Meteor311 is located similar to station Meteor341 but was occupied one month earlier. At that time the wind situation was unnormal, the usual wind direction of 45° occuring at the end of the station. Therefore an unnormally high vertical shear of current speed and direction has been observed, the current vector being directed off-shore at the surface and near the bottom, towards the coast inbetween. The TS-diagram shows that the bottom water is replaced first so that upwelling does not occur during observation time. The state reached at the end of the station does not seem to be stable. Station Meteor369, on the continental slope, is governed by internal waves. Besides the internal tide of 12.4 hours a wave of 6.5 hour period is observed, being possibly amplified by the large bottom slope. In 40 - 60 m depth, where the thermocline is located, a wave with 3.3 hour period is observed which is argued to be an internal boundary wave. Station Meteor334 is located on the shelf NW of the mouth of the Senegal river. A marked temperature stratification, associated with large disturbances, and nearly constant salinity have been found there. The current was going slowly towards S or SW in the upper 20 - 30 m, towards N underneath. At the boundary of the current systems intense turbulence developed,including as it seems a water type of less salinity which is transported from the Senegal river by the lower current. Station Meteor327, located at 100 m depth between two of the Capverde islands, shows oceanic characteristics. The semidiurnal tide is found mainly, the diurnal component having considerable influence. Furtheron an internal wave of 6 hour period is seen the maximum amplitude of which is moving slowly downwards. Two possibilities of explaining it are discussed. Station Meteor366 is found in the area of ceasing winds off the coast of upper Guinea. The temperature there depends strongly on the depth, the salinity being nearly constant. The currents are divided into an upper and a lower system with large variations in both of them. A change of wind direction of nearly 90° is supposed to be the reason. The variations in salinity accordingly are interpreted as the influence of fresh water outflow from land which is felt in a different way at different wind directions. In the last section the daily changes in air and water temperature are studied. The upwelling having large influence on these, a centre of the area of upwelling can be located at about 100 miles north of Cape Blanc (Station Meteor311). The semidiurnal tidal component is compared with previous results for the Atlantic Ocean yielding considerable differences for the direction and time of occurence of the current maximum which might be due to the topographical influences around the shelf.

Geochemical and palynological measurements from the ODP Leg 189 at Site 1172 on the East Tasman Plateau

A brief (~150 kyr) period of widespread global average surface warming marks the transition between the Paleocene and Eocene epochs, ~56 million years ago. This so-called "Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum" (PETM) is associated with the massive injection of 13C-depleted carbon, reflected in a negative carbon isotope excursion (CIE). Biotic responses include a global abundance peak (acme) of the subtropical dinoflagellate Apectodinium. Here we identify the PETM in a marine sedimentary sequence deposited on the East Tasman Plateau at Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1172 and show, based on the organic paleothermometer TEX86, that southwest Pacific sea surface temperatures increased from ~26 °C to ~33°C during the PETM. Such temperatures before, during and after the PETM are >10 °C warmer than predicted by paleoclimate model simulations for this latitude. In part, this discrepancy may be explained by potential seasonal biases in the TEX86 proxy in polar oceans. Additionally, the data suggest that not only Arctic, but also Antarctic temperatures may be underestimated in simulations of ancient greenhouse climates by current generation fully coupled climate models. An early influx of abundant Apectodinium confirms that environmental change preceded the CIE on a global scale. Organic dinoflagellate cyst assemblages suggest a local decrease in the amount of river run off reaching the core site during the PETM, possibly in concert with eustatic rise. Moreover, the assemblages suggest changes in seasonality of the regional hydrological system and storm activity. Finally, significant variation in dinoflagellate cyst assemblages during the PETM indicates that southwest Pacific climates varied significantly over time scales of 103 - 104 years during this event, a finding comparable to similar studies of PETM successions from the New Jersey Shelf.