Virtues and Perils of Anonymity: Should Intermediaries Bear the Burden?

On October 10, 2013, the Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) handed down a judgment (Delfi v. Estonia) condoning Estonia for a law which, as interpreted, held a news portal liable for the defamatory comments of its users. Amongst the considerations that led the Court to find no violation of freedom of expression in this particular case were, above all, the inadequacy of the automatic screening system adopted by the website and the users’ option to post their comments anonymously (i.e. without need for prior registration via email), which in the Court’s view rendered the protection conferred to the injured party via direct legal action against the authors of the comments ineffective. Drawing on the implications of this (not yet final) ruling, this paper discusses a few questions that the tension between the risk of wrongful use of information and the right to anonymity generates for the development of Internet communication, and examines the role that intermediary liability legislation can play to manage this tension.

Under One Umbrella: Problems of Internet Retransmissions of Broadcasts and Implications for New Audiovisual Content Services

The development of broadband Internet connections has fostered new audiovisual media services and opened new possibilities for accessing broadcasts. The Internet retransmission case of TVCatchup before the CJEU was the first case concerning new technologies in the light of Art. 3.1. of the Information Society Directive. On the other side of the Atlantic the Aereo case reached the U.S. Supreme Court and challenged the interpretation of public performance rights. In both cases the recipients of the services could receive broadcast programs in a way alternative to traditional broadcasting channels including terrestrial broadcasting or cable transmission. The Aereo case raised the debate on the possible impact of the interpretation of copyright law in the context of the development of new technologies, particularly cloud based services. It is interesting to see whether any similar problems occur in the EU. The „umbrella” in the title refers to Art. 8 WCT, which covers digital and Internet transmission and constitutes the backrgound for the EU and the U.S. legal solutions. The article argues that no international standard for qualification of the discussed services exists.

Mammografie-Screening

Nur wenige Vorsorgeuntersuchungen sind so umfassend in randomisiert-kon- trollierten Studien (RCTs) untersucht worden wie das Screening auf Brustkrebs mit Hilfe der Mammografie. Es liegen derzeit acht große randomisiert-kontrol- lierte Studien und mehrere Meta-Analysen vor. Letztere kommen mehrheitlich zum Schluss, dass sich die Brustkrebssterblichkeit durch Mammografie-Screening um etwa 20 % senken lässt. Dies bedeutet im Schweizer Kontext, dass etwa 1 von 1'000 Frauen weniger an Brustkrebs stirbt, wenn Frauen ab dem 50. Lebensjahr zehn Jahre lang gescreent werden. Andererseits führt das Screening auch zu Überdiagnosen und Übertherapien. So nimmt die Zahl der Brustkrebsdiagnosen um etwa 20 % zu, was zu einer entsprechenden Zunahme an chirurgischen Ein- griffen, Strahlen- und Chemotherapien führt. Über zehn Jahre gerechnet, erhal- ten etwa 4 von 1'000 Frauen eine Brustkrebsdiagnose, die sie ohne Screening nicht erhalten hätten. Etwa 200 von 1'000 Frauen sind im Verlaufe von zehn Jahren (fünf Screening-Runden) mit abklärungsbedürftigen Befunden konfron- tiert, wobei es sich dabei mehrheitlich um falsch positive Befunde handelt. Gleichzeitig werden auch mit einem Screening-Programm 20 bis 30 % der Brust- krebse nicht im Screening erfasst. Die Information der Bevölkerung bezüglich des Mammografie-Screenings ist derzeit noch mangelhaft. Dies führt dazu, dass der mögliche Nutzen von den betroffenen Frauen überschätzt und der Schaden unterschätzt wird. Die Aufklärung der Bevölkerung im Hinblick auf Nutzen und Risiken des Mammografie-Screenings muss daher verbessert werden, denn Frau- en haben einen Anspruch auf evidenzbasierte Informationen und eine „infor- mierte Entscheidung“.

The Protection and Promotion of Cultural Diversity in a Digital Networked Environment : Mapping Possible Advances to Coherence

The present paper is the result of a four-year-long project examining the concept and the policies of cultural diversity and the impact of digital media upon the regulatory environment where the goal of cultural diversity is to be achieved. The focus of the project was primarily on the international level and in particular on the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which also epitomise the often framed as opposing pair of trade and culture. In the broad context of the project, we sought to pinpoint the essential elements of an international trade-and-culture conducive framework that can also overcome the existing fragmentation in the field of international law and move towards more coherent solutions. In a narrower context, we sketched some possible improvements to the WTO law that can make it more suitable to the digital networked environment and to the objective of diverse media that some states aspire. . Our key messages are: (1) Neither the WTO nor UNESCO currently offers appropriate solutions to the trade and culture predicament and allows for efficient protection and promotion of cultural diversity; (2) The trade and culture discourse is overly politicised and due to the related path dependencies, a number of feasible solutions appears presently blocked; (3) The digital networked environment has profoundly changed the ways cultural content is created, distributed, accessed and consumed, and may thus offer good reasons to reassess and readjust the present models of governance; (4) Access to information appears to be the most appropriate focus of the discussions with view to protecting and promoting cultural diversity in the new digital media setting, both in local and global contexts; (5) This new focal point demands also broadening and interconnecting the policy discussions, which should go beyond the narrow scope of audiovisual media services, but cautiously account for the developments at the network and applications levels, as well as in other domains, such as most notably intellectual property rights protection; (6) There are various ways in which the WTO can be made more conducive to cultural policy considerations and these include, among others, improved and updated services classifications; enhanced legal certainty with regard to digitally transferred goods and services; incorporation of rules on subsidies for services and on competition.

Food Security and Agri-Foreign Direct Investment in Weak States: Finding the Governance Gap to Avoid ‘Land Grab’

Food security is important. A rising world population coupled with climate change creates growing pressure on global world food supplies. States alleviate this pressure domestically by attracting agri-foreign direct investment (agri-FDI). This is a high-risk strategy for weak states: the state may gain valuable foreign currency, technology and debt-free growth; but equally, investors may fail to deliver on their commitments and exploit weak domestic legal infrastructure to ‘grab’ large areas of prime agricultural land, leaving only marginal land for domestic production. A net loss to local food security and to the national economy results. This is problematic because the state must continue to guarantee its citizens’ right to food and property. Agri-FDI needs close regulation to maximise its benefit. This article maps the multilevel system of governance covering agri-FDI. We show how this system creates asymmetric rights in favour of the investor to the detriment of the host state’s food security and how these problems might be alleviated.

Shaping EU trade agreements to support human rights

Trade between Europe and developing countries should be shaped such that market shares are just and trade flows foster sustainable development. But this is not always the case. While developing countries have much to gain from trade, they can also suffer serious losses. This is especially apparent with regard to food security, which often depends largely on smallholders and informal markets in poorer countries. This policy brief sketches the link between trade and the right to food, and describes how integration of Human Rights Impact Assessments in EU trade policy can help ensure sustainable trade regimes that do not cause undue harm.

Information-Centric Content Retrieval for Delay-Tolerant Networks

The shift from host-centric to information-centric networking (ICN) promises seamless communication in mobile networks. However, most existing works either consider well-connected networks with high node density or introduce modifications to {ICN} message processing for delay-tolerant Networking (DTN). In this work, we present agent-based content retrieval, which provides information-centric {DTN} support as an application module without modifications to {ICN} message processing. This enables flexible interoperability in changing environments. If no content source can be found via wireless multi-hop routing, requesters may exploit the mobility of neighbor nodes (called agents) by delegating content retrieval to them. Agents that receive a delegation and move closer to content sources can retrieve data and return it back to requesters. We show that agent-based content retrieval may be even more efficient in scenarios where multi-hop communication is possible. Furthermore, we show that broadcast communication may not be necessarily the best option since dynamic unicast requests have little overhead and can better exploit short contact times between nodes (no broadcast delays required for duplicate suppression).

Process to develop a State Model Law to reduce prescription drug trafficking while protecting pain management

This paper will discuss the intersection of pill mills and the under-treatment of pain, while addressing the unintended consequence that cracking down on pill mills actually has on medical professionals' treatment of legitimate pain in clinical settings. Moreover, the impact each issue has on the spectrum of related policy, regulatory issues and legislation will be analyzed while addressing the national impact on medical care. Lastly, this paper will outline a process to develop a State Model Law on this subject. This process will include suggestions for the future and how we can move forward to adequately address public safety needs and how we can attempt to mitigate the unintended impact prescription drug trafficking has had on a patient's right to appropriate pain management. This balance is achievable and this paper will address ways we can find this elusive balancing point through the development of a State Model Law. ^

STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSFER OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE IMPLEMENTATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROGRAMS IN TUNISIA

This dissertation focuses on Project HOPE, an American medical aid agency, and its work in Tunisia. More specifically this is a study of the implementation strategies of those HOPE sponsored projects and programs designed to solve the problems of high morbidity and infant mortality rates due to environmentally related diarrheal and enteric diseases. Several environmental health programs and projects developed in cooperation with Tunisian counterparts are described and analyzed. These include (1) a paramedical manpower training program; (2) a national hospital sanitation and infection control program; (3) a community sewage disposal project; (4) a well reconstruction project; and (5) a solid-waste disposal project for a hospital.^ After independence, Tunisia, like many developing countries, encountered several difficulties which hindered progress toward solving basic environmental health problems and prompted a request for aid. This study discusses the need for all who work in development programs to recognize and assess those difficulties or constraints which affect the program planning process, including those latent cultural and political constraints which not only exist within the host country but within the aid agency as well. For example, failure to recognize cultural differences may adversely affect the attitudes of the host staff towards their work and towards the aid agency and its task. These factors, therefore, play a significant role in influencing program development decisions and must be taken into account in order to maximize the probability of successful outcomes.^ In 1969 Project HOPE was asked by the Tunisian government to assist the Ministry of Health in solving its health manpower problems. HOPE responded with several programs, one of which concerned the training of public health nurses, sanitary technicians, and aids at Tunisia's school of public health in Nabeul. The outcome of that program as well as the strategies used in its development are analyzed. Also, certain questions are addressed such as, what should the indicators of success be, and when is the time right to phase out?^ Another HOPE program analyzed involved hospital sanitation and infection control. Certain generic aspects of basic hospital sanitation procedures were documented and presented in the form of a process model which was later used as a "microplan" in setting up similar programs in other Tunisian hospitals. In this study the details of the "microplan" are discussed. The development of a nation-wide program without any further need of external assistance illustrated the success of HOPE's implementation strategies.^ Finally, although it is known that the high incidence of enteric disease in developing countries is due to poor environmental sanitation and poor hygiene practices, efforts by aid agencies to correct these conditions have often resulted in failure. Project HOPE's strategy was to maximize limited resources by using a systems approach to program development and by becoming actively involved in the design and implementation of environmental health projects utilizing "appropriate" technology. Three innovative projects and their implementation strategies (including technical specifications) are described.^ It is advocated that if aid agencies are to make any progress in helping developing countries basic sanitation problems, they must take an interdisciplinary approach to progrm development and play an active role in helping counterparts seek and identify appropriate technologies which are socially and economically acceptable. ^

Survey analysis on dental infection control & occupational safety from India---1999 & 2010

The objective was to study knowledge, attitudes, practice (KAP) and needs regarding infection control measures using two cross-sectional surveys from 1999 and 2010 conducted in India. Both data collection instruments had only about 35 comparable variables in common. In 1999, there were 456 respondents (dentists) who completed a self-administered survey instrument compared to 272 respondents in 2010. Both the 1999 and 2010 samples were mutually independent with no overlap, had regional differences, and therefore, were not completely comparable for changes in KAP over time. While almost all respondents from both surveys felt that education in dental safety was needed and wanted mandatory dental safety curriculum in dental schools, severe inadequacies in dental safety knowledge, protection against immunizable diseases, and practice of universal precaution were noted. Data from the study demonstrated that there is a substantial opportunity to improve the knowledge, attitude and practice of dental infection control and occupational safety in India. Few respondents (27%) reported that the infectious disease status of a patient is always known and a significant number reported that they had the right to refuse care for patients of known infectious disease status. This indicates that Stigma in treating HIV/AIDS patients remains a concern, which in turn suggests that a stronger focus on educating dentists about dental safety and on stigma and infectious disease is needed. Information obtained from this study could be utilized for developing policies oriented towards increasing dental safety educational efforts, in both dental schools as curriculum, and for practicing dentists through professional updates or continuing dental education.^

La dignidad en la diversidad : educación especial — terapia ocupacional

Es la intención de este trabajo aportar reflexiones y poner en perspectiva la complejidad de avanzar en una Educación para la Diversidad que haga posible la inclusión y con ello el derecho universal a la Educación como bien social. En este momento histórico las diversidades han tomado voz y forma, al cuestionar nuestro modo de pensar la vida social. Las culturas, los sujetos, los géneros, los lenguajes, los imaginarios y las formas de habitar un mundo diverso, encuen tran eco en la sociedad de la información, en apariencia un mundo sin fronteras. Frente a las transformaciones tecnológicas y económicas del siglo XXI cabe preguntarse cuál es nuestra sensibilidad ante la diferencia, cuanto hemos avanzado en la capacidad para reconocer a “los Otros", que sabemos de sus sueños y frustraciones, como nos estamos preparando para convivir “ Nosotros y los Otros", en un mundo polifónico. Frente a estas problemáticas el aporte interdisciplinario permitirá buscar modelos alternativos que rompan este círculo a través de dispositivos de inclusión social reduciendo los temores y mitos que han impulsado en otras ocasiones a marginar a las personas. El contenido interdisciplinar de la Educación Especial ha permitido y requiere la convergencia de disciplinas, entre ellas la Terapia Ocupacional.

Minors’ Access to Contraceptive Services

Over the past 30 years, states have expanded minors’ authority to consent to health care, including care related to sexual activity. This trend reflects U.S. Supreme Court rulings extending the constitutional right to privacy to a minor’s decision to obtain contraceptives and concluding that rights do not “come into being magically only when one attains the state-defined age of majority.” It also reflects the recognition that while parental involvement is desirable, many minors will remain sexually active but not seek services if they have to tell their parents. As a result, confidentiality is vital to ensuring minors’ access to contraceptive services. Even when a state has no relevant policy or case law, physicians may commonly provide medical care to a mature minor without parental consent, particularly if the state allows a minor to consent to related health services.

España Republicana, una lectura de la Guerra Civil desde Argentina

España Republicana fue el órgano de prensa del Centro Republicano Español de Buenos Aires que, entre 1918 y 1964, resultó un medio esencial para la comunicación de las noticias de España en materia política, cultural, económica y social. Además de constituir un ámbito de información, dio lugar al diálogo entre entidades españolas de la Argentina y sirvió como vehículo a la hora de reunir material de ayuda en los momentos más duros de la Guerra Civil y de la posguerra. En sus páginas, las personalidades más destacadas de la II República aparecen como protagonistas, con sus alocuciones citadas en discurso directo, en plena toma de decisiones y, muchas veces, como firmantes de colaboraciones dedicadas en exclusiva a ser publicadas en el periódico. Dada la importante función que cumplió España Republicana durante la Guerra Civil, hemos creído útil dar a conocer en este número mono-gráfico los detalles de un trabajo que formó parte de un amplio proyecto de investigación de archivos que desarrolla el Ministerio de Cultura español, en colaboración con la Fundación "Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz". En síntesis, la tarea consistió en la microfilmación y elaboración de un índice comentado de cada uno de los más de mil números disponibles de la publicación, con un detallado registro de contenidos, onomásticos e instituciones, entre otros aspectos considerados, a fin de facilitar a los investigadores de todo el mundo la localización de los datos de su interés.

España Republicana, una lectura de la Guerra Civil desde Argentina

España Republicana fue el órgano de prensa del Centro Republicano Español de Buenos Aires que, entre 1918 y 1964, resultó un medio esencial para la comunicación de las noticias de España en materia política, cultural, económica y social. Además de constituir un ámbito de información, dio lugar al diálogo entre entidades españolas de la Argentina y sirvió como vehículo a la hora de reunir material de ayuda en los momentos más duros de la Guerra Civil y de la posguerra. En sus páginas, las personalidades más destacadas de la II República aparecen como protagonistas, con sus alocuciones citadas en discurso directo, en plena toma de decisiones y, muchas veces, como firmantes de colaboraciones dedicadas en exclusiva a ser publicadas en el periódico. Dada la importante función que cumplió España Republicana durante la Guerra Civil, hemos creído útil dar a conocer en este número mono-gráfico los detalles de un trabajo que formó parte de un amplio proyecto de investigación de archivos que desarrolla el Ministerio de Cultura español, en colaboración con la Fundación "Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz". En síntesis, la tarea consistió en la microfilmación y elaboración de un índice comentado de cada uno de los más de mil números disponibles de la publicación, con un detallado registro de contenidos, onomásticos e instituciones, entre otros aspectos considerados, a fin de facilitar a los investigadores de todo el mundo la localización de los datos de su interés.

España Republicana, una lectura de la Guerra Civil desde Argentina

España Republicana fue el órgano de prensa del Centro Republicano Español de Buenos Aires que, entre 1918 y 1964, resultó un medio esencial para la comunicación de las noticias de España en materia política, cultural, económica y social. Además de constituir un ámbito de información, dio lugar al diálogo entre entidades españolas de la Argentina y sirvió como vehículo a la hora de reunir material de ayuda en los momentos más duros de la Guerra Civil y de la posguerra. En sus páginas, las personalidades más destacadas de la II República aparecen como protagonistas, con sus alocuciones citadas en discurso directo, en plena toma de decisiones y, muchas veces, como firmantes de colaboraciones dedicadas en exclusiva a ser publicadas en el periódico. Dada la importante función que cumplió España Republicana durante la Guerra Civil, hemos creído útil dar a conocer en este número mono-gráfico los detalles de un trabajo que formó parte de un amplio proyecto de investigación de archivos que desarrolla el Ministerio de Cultura español, en colaboración con la Fundación "Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz". En síntesis, la tarea consistió en la microfilmación y elaboración de un índice comentado de cada uno de los más de mil números disponibles de la publicación, con un detallado registro de contenidos, onomásticos e instituciones, entre otros aspectos considerados, a fin de facilitar a los investigadores de todo el mundo la localización de los datos de su interés.