Ultrasound-assisted surface engineering of pharmaceutical powders

Effective processing of powdered particles can facilitate powder handling and result in better drug product performance, which is of great importance in the pharmaceutical industry where the majority of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are delivered as solid dosage forms. The purpose of this work was to develop a new ultrasound-assisted method for particle surface modification and thin-coating of pharmaceutical powders. The ultrasound was used to produce an aqueous mist with or without a coating agent. By using the proposed technique, it was possible to decrease the interparticular interactions and improve rheological properties of poorly-flowing water-soluble powders by aqueous smoothing of the rough surfaces of irregular particles. In turn, hydrophilic polymer thin-coating of a hydrophobic substance diminished the triboelectrostatic charge transfer and improved the flowability of highly cohesive powder. To determine the coating efficiency of the technique, the bioactive molecule β-galactosidase was layered onto the surface of powdered lactose particles. Enzyme-treated materials were analysed by assaying the quantity of the reaction product generated during enzymatic cleavage of the milk sugar. A near-linear increase in the thickness of the drug layer was obtained during progressive treatment. Using the enzyme coating procedure, it was confirmed that the ultrasound-assisted technique is suitable for processing labile protein materials. In addition, this pre-treatment of milk sugar could be used to improve utilization of lactose-containing formulations for populations suffering from severe lactose intolerance. Furthermore, the applicability of the thin-coating technique for improving homogeneity of low-dose solid dosage forms was shown. The carrier particles coated with API gave rise to uniform distribution of the drug within the powder. The mixture remained homogeneous during further tabletting, whereas the reference physical powder mixture was subject to segregation. In conclusion, ultrasound-assisted surface engineering of pharmaceutical powders can be effective technology for improving formulation and performance of solid dosage forms such as dry powder inhalers (DPI) and direct compression products.

From Polymorph Screening to Dissolution Testing - Solid Phase Analysis during Pharmaceutical Development and Manufacturing

Solid materials can exist in different physical structures without a change in chemical composition. This phenomenon, known as polymorphism, has several implications on pharmaceutical development and manufacturing. Various solid forms of a drug can possess different physical and chemical properties, which may affect processing characteristics and stability, as well as the performance of a drug in the human body. Therefore, knowledge and control of the solid forms is fundamental to maintain safety and high quality of pharmaceuticals. During manufacture, harsh conditions can give rise to unexpected solid phase transformations and therefore change the behavior of the drug. Traditionally, pharmaceutical production has relied on time-consuming off-line analysis of production batches and finished products. This has led to poor understanding of processes and drug products. Therefore, new powerful methods that enable real time monitoring of pharmaceuticals during manufacturing processes are greatly needed. The aim of this thesis was to apply spectroscopic techniques to solid phase analysis within different stages of drug development and manufacturing, and thus, provide a molecular level insight into the behavior of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) during processing. Applications to polymorph screening and different unit operations were developed and studied. A new approach to dissolution testing, which involves simultaneous measurement of drug concentration in the dissolution medium and in-situ solid phase analysis of the dissolving sample, was introduced and studied. Solid phase analysis was successfully performed during different stages, enabling a molecular level insight into the occurring phenomena. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was utilized in screening of polymorphs and processing-induced transformations (PITs). Polymorph screening was also studied with NIR and Raman spectroscopy in tandem. Quantitative solid phase analysis during fluidized bed drying was performed with in-line NIR and Raman spectroscopy and partial least squares (PLS) regression, and different dehydration mechanisms were studied using in-situ spectroscopy and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). In-situ solid phase analysis with Raman spectroscopy during dissolution testing enabled analysis of dissolution as a whole, and provided a scientific explanation for changes in the dissolution rate. It was concluded that the methods applied and studied provide better process understanding and knowledge of the drug products, and therefore, a way to achieve better quality.

Process Analytical Technology Approach on Fluid Bed Granulation and Drying : Identifying Critical Relationships and Constructing the Design Space

Fluid bed granulation is a key pharmaceutical process which improves many of the powder properties for tablet compression. Dry mixing, wetting and drying phases are included in the fluid bed granulation process. Granules of high quality can be obtained by understanding and controlling the critical process parameters by timely measurements. Physical process measurements and particle size data of a fluid bed granulator that are analysed in an integrated manner are included in process analytical technologies (PAT). Recent regulatory guidelines strongly encourage the pharmaceutical industry to apply scientific and risk management approaches to the development of a product and its manufacturing process. The aim of this study was to utilise PAT tools to increase the process understanding of fluid bed granulation and drying. Inlet air humidity levels and granulation liquid feed affect powder moisture during fluid bed granulation. Moisture influences on many process, granule and tablet qualities. The approach in this thesis was to identify sources of variation that are mainly related to moisture. The aim was to determine correlations and relationships, and utilise the PAT and design space concepts for the fluid bed granulation and drying. Monitoring the material behaviour in a fluidised bed has traditionally relied on the observational ability and experience of an operator. There has been a lack of good criteria for characterising material behaviour during spraying and drying phases, even though the entire performance of a process and end product quality are dependent on it. The granules were produced in an instrumented bench-scale Glatt WSG5 fluid bed granulator. The effect of inlet air humidity and granulation liquid feed on the temperature measurements at different locations of a fluid bed granulator system were determined. This revealed dynamic changes in the measurements and enabled finding the most optimal sites for process control. The moisture originating from the granulation liquid and inlet air affected the temperature of the mass and pressure difference over granules. Moreover, the effects of inlet air humidity and granulation liquid feed rate on granule size were evaluated and compensatory techniques used to optimize particle size. Various end-point indication techniques of drying were compared. The ∆T method, which is based on thermodynamic principles, eliminated the effects of humidity variations and resulted in the most precise estimation of the drying end-point. The influence of fluidisation behaviour on drying end-point detection was determined. The feasibility of the ∆T method and thus the similarities of end-point moisture contents were found to be dependent on the variation in fluidisation between manufacturing batches. A novel parameter that describes behaviour of material in a fluid bed was developed. Flow rate of the process air and turbine fan speed were used to calculate this parameter and it was compared to the fluidisation behaviour and the particle size results. The design space process trajectories for smooth fluidisation based on the fluidisation parameters were determined. With this design space it is possible to avoid excessive fluidisation and improper fluidisation and bed collapse. Furthermore, various process phenomena and failure modes were observed with the in-line particle size analyser. Both rapid increase and a decrease in granule size could be monitored in a timely manner. The fluidisation parameter and the pressure difference over filters were also discovered to express particle size when the granules had been formed. The various physical parameters evaluated in this thesis give valuable information of fluid bed process performance and increase the process understanding.

Characterization of Ion-Exchange Fibers for Controlled Drug Delivery

Increasing attention has been focused on methods that deliver pharmacologically active compounds (e.g. drugs, peptides and proteins) in a controlled fashion, so that constant, sustained, site-specific or pulsatile action can be attained. Ion-exchange resins have been widely studied in medical and pharmaceutical applications, including controlled drug delivery, leading to commercialisation of some resin based formulations. Ion-exchangers provide an efficient means to adjust and control drug delivery, as the electrostatic interactions enable precise control of the ion-exchange process and, thus, a more uniform and accurate control of drug release compared to systems that are based only on physical interactions. Unlike the resins, only few studies have been reported on ion-exchange fibers in drug delivery. However, the ion-exchange fibers have many advantageous properties compared to the conventional ion-exchange resins, such as more efficient compound loading into and release from the ion-exchanger, easier incorporation of drug-sized compounds, enhanced control of the ion-exchange process, better mechanical, chemical and thermal stability, and good formulation properties, which make the fibers attractive materials for controlled drug delivery systems. In this study, the factors affecting the nature and strength of the binding/loading of drug-sized model compounds into the ion-exchange fibers was evaluated comprehensively and, moreover, the controllability of subsequent drug release/delivery from the fibers was assessed by modifying the conditions of external solutions. Also the feasibility of ion-exchange fibers for simultaneous delivery of two drugs in combination was studied by dual loading. Donnan theory and theoretical modelling were applied to gain mechanistic understanding on these factors. The experimental results imply that incorporation of model compounds into the ion-exchange fibers was attained mainly as a result of ionic bonding, with additional contribution of non-specific interactions. Increasing the ion-exchange capacity of the fiber or decreasing the valence of loaded compounds increased the molar loading, while more efficient release of the compounds was observed consistently at conditions where the valence or concentration of the extracting counter-ion was increased. Donnan theory was capable of fully interpreting the ion-exchange equilibria and the theoretical modelling supported precisely the experimental observations. The physico-chemical characteristics (lipophilicity, hydrogen bonding ability) of the model compounds and the framework of the fibrous ion-exchanger influenced the affinity of the drugs towards the fibers and may, thus, affect both drug loading and release. It was concluded that precisely controlled drug delivery may be tailored for each compound, in particularly, by choosing a suitable ion-exchange fiber and optimizing the delivery system to take into account the external conditions, also when delivering two drugs simultaneously.

Purification of pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical compounds by sub- and supercritical extraction and chromatography

This thesis discusses the use of sub- and supercritical fluids as the medium in extraction and chromatography. Super- and subcritical extraction was used to separate essential oils from herbal plant Angelica archangelica. The effect of extraction parameters was studied and sensory analyses of the extracts were done by an expert panel. The results of the sensory analyses were compared to the analytically determined contents of the extracts. Sub- and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) was used to separate and purify high-value pharmaceuticals. Chiral SFC was used to separate the enantiomers of racemic mixtures of pharmaceutical compounds. Very low (cryogenic) temperatures were applied to substantially enhance the separation efficiency of chiral SFC. The thermodynamic aspects affecting the resolving ability of chiral stationary phases are briefly reviewed. The process production rate which is a key factor in industrial chromatography was optimized by empirical multivariate methods. General linear model was used to optimize the separation of omega-3 fatty acid ethyl esters from esterized fish oil by using reversed-phase SFC. Chiral separation of racemic mixtures of guaifenesin and ferulic acid dimer ethyl ester was optimized by using response surface method with three variables per time. It was found that by optimizing four variables (temperature, load, flowate and modifier content) the production rate of the chiral resolution of racemic guaifenesin by cryogenic SFC could be increased severalfold compared to published results of similar application. A novel pressure-compensated design of industrial high pressure chromatographic column was introduced, using the technology developed in building the deep-sea submersibles (Mir 1 and 2). A demonstration SFC plant was built and the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine A was purified to meet the requirements of US Pharmacopoeia. A smaller semi-pilot size column with similar design was used for cryogenic chiral separation of aromatase inhibitor Finrozole for use in its development phase 2.

Towards real-time understanding of processes in pharmaceutical powder technology

There is a need for better understanding of the processes and new ideas to develop traditional pharmaceutical powder manufacturing procedures. Process analytical technology (PAT) has been developed to improve understanding of the processes and establish methods to monitor and control processes. The interest is in maintaining and even improving the whole manufacturing process and the final products at real-time. Process understanding can be a foundation for innovation and continuous improvement in pharmaceutical development and manufacturing. New methods are craved for to increase the quality and safety of the final products faster and more efficiently than ever before. The real-time process monitoring demands tools, which enable fast and noninvasive measurements with sufficient accuracy. Traditional quality control methods have been laborious and time consuming and they are performed off line i.e. the analysis has been removed from process area. Vibrational spectroscopic methods are responding this challenge and their utilisation have increased a lot during the past few years. In addition, other methods such as colour analysis can be utilised in noninvasive real-time process monitoring. In this study three pharmaceutical processes were investigated: drying, mixing and tabletting. In addition tablet properties were evaluated. Real-time monitoring was performed with NIR and Raman spectroscopies, colour analysis, particle size analysis and compression data during tabletting was evaluated using mathematical modelling. These methods were suitable for real-time monitoring of pharmaceutical unit operations and increase the knowledge of the critical parameters in the processes and the phenomena occurring during operations. They can improve our process understanding and therefore, finally, enhance the quality of final products.

Investigating physical properties of solid dosage forms during pharmaceutical processing : Process analytical applications of vibrational spectroscopy

In order to improve and continuously develop the quality of pharmaceutical products, the process analytical technology (PAT) framework has been adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration. One of the aims of PAT is to identify critical process parameters and their effect on the quality of the final product. Real time analysis of the process data enables better control of the processes to obtain a high quality product. The main purpose of this work was to monitor crucial pharmaceutical unit operations (from blending to coating) and to examine the effect of processing on solid-state transformations and physical properties. The tools used were near-infrared (NIR) and Raman spectroscopy combined with multivariate data analysis, as well as X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and terahertz pulsed imaging (TPI). To detect process-induced transformations in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), samples were taken after blending, granulation, extrusion, spheronisation, and drying. These samples were monitored by XRPD, Raman, and NIR spectroscopy showing hydrate formation in the case of theophylline and nitrofurantoin. For erythromycin dihydrate formation of the isomorphic dehydrate was critical. Thus, the main focus was on the drying process. NIR spectroscopy was applied in-line during a fluid-bed drying process. Multivariate data analysis (principal component analysis) enabled detection of the dehydrate formation at temperatures above 45°C. Furthermore, a small-scale rotating plate device was tested to provide an insight into film coating. The process was monitored using NIR spectroscopy. A calibration model, using partial least squares regression, was set up and applied to data obtained by in-line NIR measurements of a coating drum process. The predicted coating thickness agreed with the measured coating thickness. For investigating the quality of film coatings TPI was used to create a 3-D image of a coated tablet. With this technique it was possible to determine coating layer thickness, distribution, reproducibility, and uniformity. In addition, it was possible to localise defects of either the coating or the tablet. It can be concluded from this work that the applied techniques increased the understanding of physico-chemical properties of drugs and drug products during and after processing. They additionally provided useful information to improve and verify the quality of pharmaceutical dosage forms

Perinteinen ja moderni senegalilaisessa populaarimusiikissa

Tutkielman tavoitteena on saada yleiskuva senegalilaisesta populaarimusiikista tarkastellen senegalilaisen perinteen ja modernien vaikutteiden kohtaamista tässä musiikissa. Moderni käsitetään siis työssä perinteen vastakohdaksi, vaikka perinteinen–moderni-jako onkin varsin ongelmallinen. Tutkimus perustuu kirjallisten lähteiden ja äänitteiden lisäksi tekijän musiikki- ja tanssiopintoihin sekä Senegalissa tehtyyn kenttätyöhön. Työssä käytetään musiikkiantropologisia ja musiikkianalyyttisiä metodeja. Tarkastelun taustaksi työssä luodaan katsaus senegalilaiseen musiikkiperinteeseen ja senegalilaisten populaarimusiikkityylien kehittymiseen. Varsinaista aihetta käsitellään sekä muusikkohaastatteluja että esimerkkikappaleita analysoimalla. Tutkimuksen pohjalta senegalilainen populaarimusiikki näyttäytyy musiikilliselta materiaaliltaan hyvin perinteisenä, lähinnä käytetyt soittimet ja teknologia ovat moderneja piirteitä. Tosin myös äänitetuotannon ja modernien medioiden vaatimukset ovat vaikuttaneen muun muassa kappaleiden rakenteisiin. Populaarimusiikki on kuitenkin kehittynyt ennemminkin länsimaista ja latinalaisamerikkalaista musiikkia "afrikkalaistamalla" kuin senegalilaista perinnemusiikkia "länsimaistamalla", vaikka perinnettä on myös pyritty modernisoimaan. Vaikka senegalilaisen populaarimusiikin voikin katsoa jatkavan alueen musiikkiperinteitä, se nähdään kuitenkin modernina musiikin muotona, ja muusikot mielellään korostavat tätä mielikuvaa haastatteluissa. Toisaalta populaarimusiikissa tuodaan esille myös mielikuvia autenttisesta senegalilaisuudesta, idealisoidusta perinteisestä yhteiskunnasta, jota ei ehkä koskaan ole ollut olemasta. Näiden mielikuvien avulla, toisaalta moderniutta, toisaalta perinnettä korostamalla. senegalilainen populaarimusiikki rakentaa ja tuo esiin modernia senegalilaista identiteettiä.

Ritarit ja samurait : Kaksi soturiperinnettä läntisissä historiallisissa vertailuissa

Soturit olivat keskeinen sosiaalinen ryhmä keskiajan läntisessä Euroopassa ja Meiji-kautta (1868-1912) edeltäneessä Japanissa. Japanin avauduttua 1800-luvun puolivaiheilla maan historiaa alettiin kirjoittaa eurooppalaisen mallin mukaan, ja soturiperinteiden rinnastaminen ja vertailu yleistyivät. Vertailun taustalla vaikuttivat käsitykset alueiden samankaltaisesta feodaalisesta historiasta. Feodalismi on säilynyt keskeisenä teemana vertailuissa ja Japanin-tutkimuksessa, vaikka keskustelu siitä onkin Euroopan keskiajantutkimuksessa pitkälti hiipunut. Myös Japanin-tutkimuksessa on viime aikoina alettu esittää kritiikkiä feodalismi-termin käyttöä, rinnastuksia ja jopa pelkkää Euroopan historiaan vertaamistakin kohtaan. Feodalismin ohella muita keskeisiä vertailuteemoja ovat Japanin modernisoituminen ja sodankäynnin teknologia. Ensimmäiset vertailut olivat etupäässä yksittäisten joskus hyvin ylimalkaisten rinnastusten hakemista. Myös systemaattisia sivilisaatiohistoriallisia vertailuja alettiin tehdä jo varhain. Japanin-tutkimuksen ensisijaiseksi vertailukohteeksi ovat kuitenkin nousseet Euroopan historian sijaan teoriat feodalismista. Tarkastelu keskittyy nykyisin lähinnä eurooppalaisten termien käyttökelpoisuuteen Japanin historiasta kirjoitettaessa. Japanin modernisoitumista käsittelevät vertailut sivuavat keskusteluita feodalismista, mutta sotureiden rooli jää niissä usein hyvin vähäiseksi. Sodankäynnin teknologiaan keskittyvät vertailut ovat ilmiönä varsin tuore, sillä japanilaisen ja eurooppalaisen sodankäynnin pääteknologiat ovat olleet ilmeisen erilaisia lukuunottamatta 1500-luvun jälkipuoliskoa ja 1600-luvun alkua sekä nykyaikaa. Uuden ajan alun Euroopan ja saman ajan Japanin sotateknologiset yhtäläisyydet rajoittuvat jalkaväen tuliaseiden käyttöönoton mukanaan tuomiin muutoksiin maasodankäynnissä ja linnoittamiseen. Merisodankäynnin ja tykistön kehitys oli alueilla erilaista. Ritareiden ja samuraiden historioissa vaikuttavat edellä mainitun varhaisten tuliaseiden aikakauden rinnalla yhtäläisimmiltä kehityskuluilta niin sanotut varhais- ja täysfeodaaliset kaudet. Näistä ensimmäisellä tarkoitetaan Euroopan karolinkivaltakunnan aikaa suhteessa Kamakura-bakufuun (1185-1333) Japanissa. Jälkimmäisellä viitataan puolestaan ensimmäisen vuosituhannen vaihteen tienoille ajoittuvasta murroksesta noin 1300-1400-luvulle ulottuvaan ajanjaksoon Euroopassa ja sisällissotien kauteen 1300-luvun lopulta 1600-luvun alkuun Japanissa. Soturiperinteiden historioissa lähimmin toisiaan vastaavat feodaaliset piirteet ovat sotureiden yhteiskunnallinen asema ja heidän arvomaailmansa. Ilmeisin ongelma Euroopan ja Japanin vertailemisessa on se, että Eurooppa on laajempi ja historialtaan monimuotoisempi kuin Japani. Kuitenkaan tätä mittakaavaongelmaa eikä muitakaan metodologisia kysymyksiä ole vertailuissa juurikaan pohdittu. Osasyynä tähän lienee se, että muutamaa poikkeusta lukuunottamatta vertailijoiden asiantuntemus on keskittynyt vain toisen soturiperinteen historiaan. Sotureiden historiat tarjoavat antoisan vertailuparin. Suurista yhtäläisyyksistä huolimatta ritareita ja samuraita ei tulisi summittaisesti samaistaa toisiinsa, vaan rinnastettaessa tulisi mieluummin käyttää yleisempää soturin käsitettä. Avainsanat: Bushi, feodalismi, Eurooppa - sotahistoria, Japani - historia, ritarit, samurait, soturit

The Networks of Learning in Technological Innovation : The Emergence of Collaboration Across Fields of Expertise

This study addresses four issues concerning technological product innovations. First, the nature of the very early phases or "embryonic stages" of technological innovation is addressed. Second, this study analyzes why and by what means people initiate innovation processes outside the technological community and the field of expertise of the established industry. In other words, this study addresses the initiation of innovation that occurs without the expertise of established organizations, such as technology firms, professional societies and research institutes operating in the technological field under consideration. Third, the significance of interorganizational learning processes for technological innovation is dealt with. Fourth, this consideration is supplemented by considering how network collaboration and learning change when formalized product development work and the commercialization of innovation advance. These issues are addressed through the empirical analysis of the following three product innovations: Benecol margarine, the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT) and the ProWellness Diabetes Management System (PDMS). This study utilizes the theoretical insights of cultural-historical activity theory on the development of human activities and learning. Activity-theoretical conceptualizations are used in the critical assessment and advancement of the concept of networks of learning. This concept was originally proposed by the research group of organizational scientist Walter Powell. A network of learning refers to the interorganizational collaboration that pools resources, ideas and know-how without market-based or hierarchical relations. The concept of an activity system is used in defining the nodes of the networks of learning. Network collaboration and learning are analyzed with regard to the shared object of development work. According to this study, enduring dilemmas and tensions in activity explain the participants' motives for carrying out actions that lead to novel product concepts in the early phases of technological innovation. These actions comprise the initiation of development work outside the relevant fields of expertise and collaboration and learning across fields of expertise in the absence of market-based or hierarchical relations. These networks of learning are fragile and impermanent. This study suggests that the significance of networks of learning across fields of expertise becomes more and more crucial for innovation activities.

Kaveriporukasta liiketoiminnaksi : Tuotannon häiriöt ja organisaation oppiminen nopeasti muuttuvassa yrityksessä

In the 1990 s the companies utilizing and producing new information technology, especially so-called new media, were also expected to be forerunners in new forms of work and organization. Researchers anticipated that new, more creative forms of work and the changing content of working life were about to replace old industrial and standardized ways of working. However, research on actual companies in the IT sector revealed a situation where only minor changes to existing organizational forms were seen .Many of the independent companies faced great difficulties trying to survive the rapid changes in the products and production forms in the emerging field. Most of the research on the new media field has been conducted as surveys, and an understanding of the actual everyday work process has remained thin. My research is a longitudinal study of the early phases of one new media company in Finland. The study is an analysis of the challenges the company faced in a rapidly changing business field and the attempts to overcome these challenges. The two main analyses in the study focus on the developmental phases of the company and the disturbances in the production process. Based on these analyses, I study changes and learning at work using the methodological framework of developmental work research. Developmental work research is a Finnish variant of the cultural-historical activity theory applied to the study of learning and transformations at work. The data was gathered over a three-year period of ethnographic fieldwork. I documented the production processes and everyday life in the company as a participant observer. I interviewed key persons, video and audio-taped meetings, followed e-mail correspondence and collected various documents, such as agreements and memos. I developed a systematic method for analyzing the disturbances in the production process by combining the various data sources. The systematic analysis of the disturbances depicted a very complex and only partly managed production process. The production process had a long duration, and no single actor had an understanding of it as a whole. Most of the disturbances had to do with the customer relationships. The nature of the disturbances was latent; they were recognized but not addressed. In the particular production processes that I analyzed, the ending life span of a particular product, a CD-ROM, became obvious. This finding can be interpreted in relation to the developmental phase of the production and the transformation of the field as a whole. Based on the analysis of the developmental phases and the disturbances, I formulate a hypothesis of the contradictions and developmental potentials of the activity studied. The conclusions of the study challenge the existing understanding of how to conceptualize and study organizational learning in production work. Most theories of organizational learning do not address qualitative changes in production nor historical challenges of organizational learning itself. My study opens up a new horizon in understanding organizational learning in a rapidly changing field where a learning culture based on craft or mass production work is insufficient. There is a need for anticipatory and proactive organizational learning. Proactive learning is needed to anticipate the changes in production type, and the life cycles of products.

"Älynväläyksiä juoksuasuissa" : Kestävyysjuoksijoiden käsityksiä juoksuasujen funktionaalisuudesta talviolosuhteissa sekä älyvaatteista

In this research the technical functionality, quality and demands made on endurance runners` running suits in winter conditions were studied. The aim was also to find out how smart clothing and wearable technology are adopted in endurance runners` practise. Referring to previous studies the subject was approached in the theoretical part by studying the profile of endurance running, sports wear and the technology to wear as well as the smart clothing from the point of view of endurance running. The basis of subject was the interest of smart materials and the connection between technical structures and functionality. In the science of handicrafts smart clothing is rarely researched which made it even more interesting for the author. This research was carried out by the principles of the usability research. Usability means the suitability of product to its intended meaning. In the research both quantitative and qualitative methods were used. Researched persons were active competitive long-distance runners and also the long-distance runners doing it as a hobby, 35 male and 12 female runners. User information was gathered by the internet forms which mainly was based on the multiple choices but also included few open questions. Gathered information was considered by using both quantitative and content analysing methods. The functional long-distance running practice suit in winter conditions consisted of layered look which considered the possibilities of functional and smart materials. The Practise suit was humid transformable, easy care and light also comfortable to wear. These suits were hoped to be more functional than the current ones. The future running suit was described to not to feel or notice during running. It will not be too tight or sweltering. The functional abilities of clothing materials were believed to be developed further more. Even if the new technical materials are adopted for the running suits the technology to wear is not even though half of the researched runners used pulse indicators. The runners hoped the technology to wear to change more invisible and easier to use. Some of the runners wished the technology to wear to be integrated straight to the clothes which would reduce the number of devices carried with while running. The rare use of Polar Adidas AdiStar Fusion practise system and some other similar systems for endurance running was surprising. According to the results the smart clothing would not make a big brake through in the near future. In the point of view of the researched persons developing of clothing materials was a good and necessary thing, but integrating too much technology to the hobby smears the main purpose of sports and focuses wrongly on the metres and others minors .

Automaatioteknologian opetus kuvakepohjaisella ohjelmointikielellä : Teknologiakasvatuksen opetuskokeilu kolmessa eri käyttöympäristössä

Tutkimus kuuluu Helsingin yliopiston opettajankoulutuslaitoksen luonnontieteen ja teknologian opetusta ja opetusvälineitä kehittävään LUONTI-projektiin. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on teknologiakasvatukseen liittyvän käsitteistön selkiyttäminen ja projektissa kehitetyn laitteiston, Empirica Controlin, käyttöönotto ja sen tutkiminen. Teoreettisessa taustassa tarkastellaan teknologiaa ja teknologiakasvatusta oppivelvollisuuskoulun näkökulmasta. Erilaisia teknologiamäärittelyjä ja ajatuksia teknologian olemuksesta verrataan tutkimuksessa kehitetyillä malleilla. Teknologia on luonteeltaan integroiva aihepiiri, jolle on ainakin tässä tutkimuksessa esitetyn teorian valossa vaikea määritellä omaa tiedonalaa ja siten luontevaa paikkaa omana oppiaineenaan. Avoimessa oppimisympäristössä tapahtuvaa kognitiivisen teorian mukaista oppimista on hahmoteltu muokkaamalla Lehtisen (1988) esittämää mallia. Aikaisempien tutkimus- ja kokeiluraporttien perusteella määritellään kolme luovaa ongelmanratkaisua ja avointa oppimisympäristöä hyödyntävää työtapaa: mallintava menetelmä, ongelmanratkaisu ja vapaa kokeilu. Empirica Controlia verrataan tekstipohjaiseen Logoon ja muihin markkinoilla oleviin laitteistoihin sekä tarkastellaan sen ominaisuuksia didaktiikan ja konstruktivistisen oppimisteorian näkökulmasta. Tutkimuksen empiirinen osuus koostuu kolmesta opetuskokeilusta. Laajin kokeilu järjestettiin kahdella helsinkiläisellä peruskoulun ala-asteen 2. luokalla. Menetelmällisenä viitekehyksenä oli neljä sykliä käsittävä opetus- ja arviointikäytäntöjen kehittämiseen pyrkivä toimintatutkimus, jossa jokainen sykli pitää sisällään kvantitatiivisesti suoritetun oppimisen tarkastelun. Tiedonhankintamenetelminä käytettiin oppilaiden itsearviointia, erilaisia haastatteluja ja ääninauhan tukemaan strukturoitua päiväkirjaa pyrkien menetelmälliseen triangulaatioon. Näitä tuloksia varmennettiin kahdella lyhyemmällä opetuskokeilulla, joista toisessa tutkittavat olivat viidesluokkalaisia ja toisessa luokan- ja lastentarhanopettajiksi opiskelevia. Tutkimus tuotti kokemuksia Empirica Controlin opetuskäytöstä sekä laitteiston kehittämisehdotuksia. Tulosten mukaan oppilailla oli työskentelyn vaatiman teknologiaan, tietotekniikkaan ja rakentamisee nliittyvät perusvalmiudet. He kokivat työskentelyn positiivisena ja oppivat käyttämään ohjelmointikielen yksinkertaisimpia käskyjä. Lyhyemmät opetuskokeilut antoivat samansuuntaisia tuloksia. Teknologian oppimista tutkittiin automaatioteknologisten laitteiden toiminnasta annettujen selitysten kautta. Selityksissä havaittiin vain hienoista paranemista. Avainsanat: teknologiakasvatus, konstruktivismi, avoin oppimisympäristö, ryhmätyö, tietokoneavusteinen opetus,triangulaatio Keywords: technology education, constructivism, open learning environment, groupwork, computer-aided instruction,triangulation

Burnt area mapping in insular Southeast Asia using medium resolution satellite imagery

Burnt area mapping in humid tropical insular Southeast Asia using medium resolution (250-500m) satellite imagery is characterized by persisting cloud cover, wide range of land cover types, vast amount of wetland areas and highly varying fire regimes. The objective of this study was to deepen understanding of three major aspects affecting the implementation and limits of medium resolution burnt area mapping in insular Southeast Asia: 1) fire-induced spectral changes, 2) most suitable multitemporal compositing methods and 3) burn scars patterns and size distribution. The results revealed a high variation in fire-induced spectral changes depending on the pre-fire greenness of burnt area. It was concluded that this variation needs to be taken into account in change detection based burnt area mapping algorithms in order to maximize the potential of medium resolution satellite data. Minimum near infrared (MODIS band 2, 0.86μm) compositing method was found to be the most suitable for burnt area mapping purposes using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. In general, medium resolution burnt area mapping was found to be usable in the wetlands of insular Southeast Asia, whereas in other areas the usability was seriously jeopardized by the small size of burn scars. The suitability of medium resolution data for burnt area mapping in wetlands is important since recently Southeast Asian wetlands have become a major point of interest in many fields of science due to yearly occurring wild fires that not only degrade these unique ecosystems but also create regional haze problem and release globally significant amounts of carbon into the atmosphere due to burning peat. Finally, super-resolution MODIS images were tested but the test failed to improve the detection of small scars. Therefore, super-resolution technique was not considered to be applicable to regional level burnt area mapping in insular Southeast Asia.

Silvicultural decisions based on simulation-optimization systems

Forest management is facing new challenges under climate change. By adjusting thinning regimes, conventional forest management can be adapted to various objectives of utilization of forest resources, such as wood quality, forest bioenergy, and carbon sequestration. This thesis aims to develop and apply a simulation-optimization system as a tool for an interdisciplinary understanding of the interactions between wood science, forest ecology, and forest economics. In this thesis, the OptiFor software was developed for forest resources management. The OptiFor simulation-optimization system integrated the process-based growth model PipeQual, wood quality models, biomass production and carbon emission models, as well as energy wood and commercial logging models into a single optimization model. Osyczka s direct and random search algorithm was employed to identify optimal values for a set of decision variables. The numerical studies in this thesis broadened our current knowledge and understanding of the relationships between wood science, forest ecology, and forest economics. The results for timber production show that optimal thinning regimes depend on site quality and initial stand characteristics. Taking wood properties into account, our results show that increasing the intensity of thinning resulted in lower wood density and shorter fibers. The addition of nutrients accelerated volume growth, but lowered wood quality for Norway spruce. Integrating energy wood harvesting into conventional forest management showed that conventional forest management without energy wood harvesting was still superior in sparse stands of Scots pine. Energy wood from pre-commercial thinning turned out to be optimal for dense stands. When carbon balance is taken into account, our results show that changing carbon assessment methods leads to very different optimal thinning regimes and average carbon stocks. Raising the carbon price resulted in longer rotations and a higher mean annual increment, as well as a significantly higher average carbon stock over the rotation.