Expression of p53 tumor suppressor protein in sun-exposed skin and associations with sunscreen use and time spent outdoors: A community-based study

The p53 gene is a tumor suppressor gene that is commonly mutated in skin cancer and sun-exposed skin, and this can be detected through immunohistochemical expression of the p53 protein. The authors hypothesized that time spent outdoors is associated with p53 protein expression in human skin and that sunscreen use counteracts the association. In 1996, they investigated this in a community-based cross-sectional study in Australia. Detailed information about skin type, time spent outdoors, and sunscreen use was collected from 139 residents of a subtropical township who also provided a skin biopsy from the back of the hand for measurement of p53 expression. Increasing time spent outdoors was positively associated with immuno reactivity in the whole epidermis and in the basal layer of the epidermis. After adjustment for confounders, p53 immunoreactivity was twice as high for people who used sunscreen 1 or 2 days per week as for those who used sunscreen daily (whole epidermis: ratio estimate = 2.0, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 3.6; basal layer: ratio estimate = 1.7, 95% confidence interval: 0.9, 3.1). The authors conclude that p53 immunoreactivity in the skin is a marker of exposure to ultraviolet light in the past 6 months, but this may be mitigated by regular application of sunscreen.

Markers of genetic susceptibility in human environmental hygiene and toxicology : the role of selected CYP, NAT and GST genes

Inherited genetic traits co-determine the susceptibility of an individual to a toxic chemical. Special emphasis has been put on individual responses to environmental and industrial carcinogens, but other chronic diseases are of increasing interest. Polymorphisms of relevant xenobiotic metabolising enzymes may be used as toxicological susceptibility markers. A growing number of genes encoding enzymes involved in biotransformation of toxicants and in cellular defence against toxicant-induced damage to the cells has been identified and cloned, leading to increased knowledge of allelic variants of genes and genetic defects that may result in a differential susceptibility toward environmental toxicants. "Low penetrating" polymorphisms in metabolism genes tend to be much more common in the population than allelic variants of "high penetrating" cancer genes, and are therefore of considerable importance from a public health point of view. Positive associations between cancer and CYP1A1 alleles, in particular the *2C I462V allele, were found for tissues following the aerodigestive tract. Again, in most cases, the effect of the variant CYP1A1 allele becomes apparent or clearer in connection with the GSTM1 null allele. The CYP1B1 codon 432 polymorphism (CYP1B1*3) has been identified as a susceptibility factor in smoking-related head-and-neck squameous cell cancer. The impact of this polymorphic variant of CYP1B1 on cancer risk was also reflected by an association with the frequency of somatic mutations of the p53 gene. Combined genotype analysis of CYP1B1 and the glutathione transferases GSTM1 or GSTT1 has also pointed to interactive effects. Of particular interest for the industrial and environmental field is the isozyme CYP2E1. Several genotypes of this isozyme have been characterised which seem to be associated with different levels of expression of enzyme activity. The acetylator status for NAT2 can be determined by genotyping or by phenotyping. In the pathogenesis of human bladder cancer due to occupational exposure to "classical" aromatic amines (benzidine, 4-aminodiphenyl, 1-naphthylamine) acetylation by NAT2 is regarded as a detoxication step. Interestingly, the underlying European findings of a higher susceptibility of slow acetylators towards aromatic amines are in contrast to findings in Chinese workers occupationally exposed to aromatic amines which points to different mechanisms of susceptibility between European and Chinese populations. Regarding human bladder cancer, the hypothesis has been put forward that genetic polymorphism of GSTM1 might be linked with the occurrence of this tumour type. This supports the hypothesis that exposure to PAH might causally be involved in urothelial cancers. The human polymorphic GST catalysing conjugation of halomethanes, dihalomethanes, ethylene oxide and a number of other industrial compounds could be characterised as a class theta enzyme (GSTT1) by means of molecular biology. "Conjugator" and "non-conjugator" phenotypes are coincident with the presence and absence of the GSTT1 gene. There are wide variations in the frequencies of GSTT1 deletion (GSTT1 *0/0) among different ethnicities. Human phenotyping is facilitated by the GST activity towards methyl bromide or ethylene oxide in erythrocytes which is representative of the metabolic GSTT1 competence of the entire organism. Inter-individual variations in xenobiotic metabolism capacities may be due to polymorphisms of the genes coding for the enzymes themselves or of the genes coding for the receptors or transcription factors which regulate the expression of the enzymes. Also, polymorphisms in several regions of genes may cause altered ligand affinity, transactivation activity or expression levels of the receptor subsequently influencing the expression of the downstream target genes. Studies of individual susceptibility to toxicants and gene-environment interaction are now emerging as an important component of molecular epidemiology.

Genetic studies on recurrent miscarriage

Recurrent miscarriage (RM) is defined as three consecutive pregnancy failures and is estimated to affect ~1% of couples trying to conceive. The cause of RM remains unknown in approximately 50% of cases. In this study, it was hypothesized that some of the underlying factors yet to be discovered are genetic. The aim was to search for mutations in genes AMN, EPCR, TM, and p53 known to cause miscarriage in mouse models and thereby find new genetic causes for unexplained miscarriages in humans. In addition, the mitochondrial genome was studied because mitochondria are involved in processes important in early development. Furthermore, sex chromosome characteristics suggested to underlie miscarriage were also studied. A total of 40 couples and 8 women with unexplained RM were collected for this study and screened for mutations in the candidate genes. Six interesting exonic or potential splice site disrupting variations were detected. However, their phenotypic effects cannot be determined without further investigations. Additionally, an association between the C11992A polymorphism of the p53 gene and RM was detected. The results indicate that women carrying the C/A or A/A genotype have a two-fold higher risk for RM than women with a C/C genotype. This strengthens the results of previous studies reporting that p53 sequence variations may cause miscarriage. The role of variation C11992A in embryonic development is, however, difficult to predict without further studies When screening the mitochondrial genome a heteroplasmic mtDNA variation was found in an unexpected high number of women, as heteroplasmic variations are reported to be rare. One novel variation and 18 previously reported polymorphisms were detected in the mitochondrial genome. Although the detected variations are likely to be neutral polymorphisms, a role in the aetiology of miscarriage cannot be excluded as some mtDNA variations may be pathogenic only when a threshold is reached. Recent publications have reported skewed X chromosome inactivation and Y chromosome microdeletions to be associated with RM. Therefore, these sex chromosome abnormalities in the context of RM were investigated. No associations between skewed X chromosome inactivation or Y chromosome microdeletions and RM in the Finnish patients were detected. Data on ancestral birthplaces of the patients were collected to study any possible geographic clustering, which would indicate a common predisposing factor. The results showed clustering of the birthplaces in eastern Finland in a subset of patients. This suggests a possibility of an enriched susceptibility gene which may contribute to RM.

Avaliação do efeito do inibidor de histona deacetilase Panobinostat (LBH589) no metabolismo energético de células derivadas de câncer de pulmão

Os mecanismos de ação citotóxica do inibidor de histona deacetilase LBH589 foram investigados em associação com o quimioterápico cisplatina (CDDP) em duas linhagens derivadas de câncer de pulmão de não pequenas células (CPNPC). Os resultados foram analisados em relação ao tipo de morte celular associada às alterações em enzimas relacionadas ao metabolismo energético e a via glicolítica. Para realização do trabalho, foram utilizadas as linhagens tumorais A549 (selvagem para o gene de p53) e Calu-1 (nulo para o gene de p53) tratadas com LBH589 em combinação ou não com CDDP. Foram realizadas curvas de tempo e dose-resposta com as drogas isoladamente pelo ensaio de viabilidade celular (MTT) nas duas linhagens para a escolha das melhores condições para o nosso estudo. As condições dos tratamentos isolados com redução da viabilida celular menores que o IC50 de cada fármaco foram selecionados para realização dos tratamentos combinados. As avaliações de apoptose foram realizadas por citometria de fluxo pelo ensaio de Anexina V/PI, e com a marcação de proteínas por Western Blotting. As proteínas relacionadas a via glicolítica foram avaliadas por Western Blotting e a expressão de RNAm por qPCR. Os resultados demonstraram que o LBH589 combinado a CDDP foi capaz de induzir apoptose em 70% das células (Calu-1) e 54,9% (A549) no tempo de 24 horas, e 90% (calu-1) e 62,1% (A549) em 48 horas, independendo, portanto, do status da p53. Os níveis de expressão de enzimas relacionadas com o metabolismos energético também sofreram alterações nos tratamentos estudados. O LBH589 induziu aumento de cerca de 4x dos níveis de RNAm de HK isoformas I e II em ambas as linhagens. Houve também um aumento na expressão proteica das isoformas de HK I e II. Outras enzimas relacionadas a via glicolítica como PFKP, PKM2 e LDHA foram analisadas e apresentaram redução da expressão proteica, principalmente na presença do LBH589. A combinação da CDDP com LBH589 parece ser promissora para o tratamento de CPNPC induzindo apoptose através de alterações no metabolismo energético tumoral.

Label free electrochemiluminescence protocol for sensitive DNA detection with a tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) modified electrode based on nucleic acid oxidation

Label free electrochemiluminescence (ECL) DNA detection based on catalytic guanine and adenine bases oxidation using tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) [Ru(bpy)(3)(2+)] modified glassy carbon (GC) electrode was demonstrated in this work. The modified GC electrode was prepared by casting carbon nanotubes (CNT)/Nafion/Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) composite film on the electrode surface. ECL signals of doublestranded DNA and their thermally denatured counterparts can be distinctly discriminated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) with a low concentration (3.04 x 10(-8) mol/L for Salmon Testes-DNA). Most importantly, sensitive single-base mismatch detection of p53 gene sequence segment was realized with 3.93 x 10(-10) mol/L employing CV stimulation (ECL signal of C/A mismatched DNA oligonucleotides was 1.5-fold higher than that of fully base-paired DNA oligonucleotides). Label free, high sensitivity and simplicity for single-base mismatch discrimination were the main advantages of the present ECL technique for DNA detection over the traditional DNA sensors.

Ligation of cell surface GRP78 with antibody directed against the COOH-terminal domain of GRP78 suppresses Ras/MAPK and PI 3-kinase/AKT signaling while promoting caspase activation in human prostate cancer cells.

We have previously shown that treatment of prostate cancer and melanoma cells expressing GRP78 on their cell surface with antibody directed against the COOH-terminal domain of GRP78 upregulates and activates p53 causing decreased cell proliferation and upregulated apoptosis. In this report, we demonstrate that treatment of 1-LN prostate cancer cells with this antibody decreases cell surface expression of GRP78, Akt(Thr308) and Akt(Ser473) kinase activities and reduces phosphorylation of FOXO, and GSK3beta. This treatment also suppresses activation of ERK1/2, p38 MAPK and MKK3/6; however, it upregulates MKK4 activity. JNK, as determined by its phosphorylation state, is subsequently activated, triggering apoptosis. Incubation of cells with antibody reduced levels of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, while elevating pro-apoptotic BAD, BAX and BAK expression as well as cleaved caspases-3, -7, -8 and -9. Silencing GRP78 or p53 gene expression by RNAi prior to antibody treatment abrogated these effects. We conclude that antibody directed against the COOH-terminal domain of GRP78 may prove useful as a pan suppressor of proliferative/survival signaling in cancer cells expressing GRP78 on their cell surface.

Étude de Necdin par un modèle de carcinogénèse lié à l’antigène grand T du Virus du polyome

Les virus sont utilisés depuis longtemps dans la recherche sur le cancer et ont grandement contribué à l’avancement des connaissances de même qu’à l’établissement de préceptes importants encore valables aujourd’hui dans le domaine. L’un des défis actuels est de mieux définir les étapes menant à la transition d’une cellule normale à une cellule transformée et c’est sur cette problématique que nous nous sommes penchés. Pour ce faire, nous avons tiré profit de l’utilisation de l’antigène grand-T du virus de polyome (PyLT), un virus capable d’induire des tumeurs chez les rongeurs. Cet oncogène viral à lui seul possède des propriétés intéressantes qui suggèrent que, en plus de l’immortalisation, il peut également contribuer aux événements précoces de la carcinogénèse. Ceci repose principalement sur la capacité de PyLT à induire des tumeurs en souris transgéniques et ce, avec une certaine latence ce qui suggère que des événements supplémentaires sont nécessaires. Ainsi, l’utilisation de PyLT dans un modèle de culture cellulaire permet de disséquer les changements qui lui sont attribuables. Dans un premier temps, l’établissement du profil d'expression génique associé à l'expression de PyLT dans un modèle murin nous a permis de sélectionner un bon nombre de gènes, parmi lesquels figurait Necdin. Nous avons choisi d’étudier Necdin plus en détail puisque peu d’attention était accordée à cette protéine dans le domaine du cancer, malgré que différentes données de la littérature lui suggèrent à la fois des fonctions suppresseurs de tumeur et oncogéniques. Nous avons démontré que, malgré sa fonction proposée de suppresseur de croissance, l’expression de Necdin n’est pas incompatible avec la prolifération dans la lignée cellulaire de souris NIH 3T3 et les cellules primaires humaines (IMR90), bien que l’inhibition de son expression par shARN confère un avantage prolifératif. Nous avons confirmé que Necdin est un gène cible de p53 induit par différents agents génotoxiques, toutefois son expression peut également être régulée de façon p53-indépendante. De plus, Necdin agit négativement sur l’arrêt du cycle cellulaire en réponse à l’activation de p53. Ceci suggère que Necdin est impliqué dans une boucle de régulation négative de la voie de p53 et que l’augmentation anormale de l’expression de Necdin pourrait contribuer à la perturbation la voie du suppresseur de tumeur p53. L’activation de p53 permet l’arrêt transitoire du cycle cellulaire en condition de stress, mais est aussi impliquée dans l’établissement d’un arrêt permanent nommé sénescence. La sénescence est un mécanisme de protection contre l’accumulation de mutations qui peut contribuer à l’initiation du cancer. Vu l’intéressante implication de Necdin dans la régulation de l’activité de p53, nous avons transposé les connaissances acquises du modèle murin à un modèle humain, plus adapté pour l’étude de la sénescence. La caractérisation de l’expression de Necdin dans des fibroblastes primaires humains à différents passages montre que les jeunes cellules en prolifération active expriment Necdin et que son niveau diminue avec l’établissement de la sénescence réplicative. Le même phénomène est observé lors de la sénescence prématurée provoquée par l’expression d’un oncogène et par l’exposition aux radiations ionisantes. De plus, dans des conditions normales de prolifération, la modulation de Necdin par des essais de gain et de perte de fonction n’affecte pas la durée de vie des cellules primaires. Toutefois, en condition de stress génotoxique dû à l’exposition aux irradiations, les cellules surexprimant Necdin présentent une radiorésistance accrue de la même façon que lorsque p53 est inactivé directement. Ce résultat en cellules humaines vient appuyer l’effet observé dans les cellules de souris sur l’impact qu’aura le niveau de Necdin sur la réponse de p53 en condition de stress. Un bref survol a été fait pour aborder de quelle façon nos résultats en culture cellulaire pouvaient se traduire dans des modèles de cancer chez l’humain. Nous avons caractérisé l’expression de Necdin dans deux types différents de cancer. D’abord, dans le cancer de l’ovaire, le niveau élevé de Necdin dans les tumeurs à faible potentiel de malignité (LMP) en comparaison aux cancers agressifs de l’ovaire de type séreux suggère que l’expression de Necdin se limite aux cellules de cancer LMP, qui présente généralement un p53 de type sauvage. Son expression est aussi retrouvée dans deux lignées cellulaires du cancer de l’ovaire non-tumorigéniques en xénogreffe de souris, dont l’une possède un p53 fonctionnel. De plus, la caractérisation de Necdin dans les lignées cellulaires du cancer de la prostate suggère une relation entre son expression et la présence de p53 fonctionnel. Dans le cancer de la prostate, tout comme pour le cancer de l’ovaire, Necdin semble être présent dans les lignées représentant un stade moins avancé de la maladie. L’utilisation de l’oncoprotéine virale PyLT nous a permis de révéler des propriétés intéressantes de Necdin. Nous proposons que dans certains contextes, l’expression constitutive de Necdin pourrait contribuer au cancer en retardant une réponse par p53 appropriée et possiblement en participant à l’augmentation de l’instabilité génomique. La fonction potentiellement oncogénique de Necdin quant à sa relation avec p53 que nous avons révélée requiert davantage d’investigation et les cancers caractérisés ici pourraient constituer de bons modèles à cette fin.

Études des mécanismes d’induction de l’immunosuppression par le virus Herpès Humain 6

HHV-6 is a ubiquitous human herpesvirus. Most individuals become infected at the age of 2 years. Primary infection by the virus causes a self-limiting febrile illness called exanthem subitum or roseola. In adults, primary infection may cause mononucleosis-like illnesses. The infection usually remains latent in healthy individuals, but often reactivates in immunocompromised individuals, for example, transplant patients and AIDS patients. The virus has also been associated with cancers and lymphoproliferative disorders. The virus encodes two proteins that interact with p53. However, little is known concerning the impact of the virus on cell cycle progression in human cells. The investigations reported in the thesis were focused on this issue. We show here that that HHV-6 infection delays the cell cycle progression in human T cell line HSB-2, as well as in primary human T cells and causes their accumulation in S and G2/M phase. By degrading the viral DNA in the virus-infected cells, we show that the infected cells accumulate in the G2/M and not in the S phase. We observed an increase in the kinase activity of cdc2 in virus-infected cells despite lower levels of its catalytic partners, cyclin A and cyclin B. We show here that the viral early antigen p41 associates with, and increases the kinase activity of, CDK1. Our studies have shown that there is a drastic reduction of p21 protein, despite the virus-induced stabilization and activation of p53 suggesting that p53 may be transcriptionally inactivated in the virus-infected cells. This decrease of p21 in infected cells was partially restored by proteasome inhibitors. These results suggest that HHV-6 causes perturbations in the normal progression of cell cycle in human T cells. Autophagy is a physiological cell process during which old cellular constituents and long-lived proteins in cells are degraded. This process is regulated in a cell cycle-dependent manner. We show here that infection with HHV-6 induces autophagy in HSB-2 cells. This was shown by the induction of LC-3 II as well as by the appearance of autophagic vacuoles in the virus-infected cells. However, we found that the virus inhibits fusion between autophagic vacuoles and lysosomes formed in infected cells, thus evading the autophagic response of infected host cells. Finally we tried to investigate replication of the virus in human cells in the absence of P53; a tumor suppressor gene which is also known as "the guardian of the genome ". During these investigations, we found that that inhibition of p53 gene expression mediated by siRNA as well as its inhibition by pharmacological inhibitors leads to massive cell death in human T cell line HSB-2 that carries a wild-type p53. We show that this death also occurs in another cell line CEM, which carries a transcriptionally mutated p53. Interestingly, the cell death could be prevented by pharmacological inhibitors of autophagy and necroptosis. Taken together, our results provide important novel insights concerning the impact of HHV-6 on cell cycle regulation and autophagy as well as of basal level p53 in cell survival.

Untersuchungen zum Mechanismus der Zytotoxizität von alkylierenden Agenzien in malignen Melanomzellen

Maligne Melanome sind gegenüber Chemotherapeutika relativ resistent. Das methylierende Alkylanz Temozolomid sowie das chlorethylierende und DNA-Interstrand Crosslink (ICL) bildende Alkylanz Fotemustin kommen bei der Behandlung des malignen Melanoms als Mittel erster Wahl zum Einsatz. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte das erste Mal nachgewiesen werden, dass die zytotoxische Wirkung von Temozolomid und Fotemustin in Melanomzellen durch Apoptose vermittelt wird. Unter Verwendung klinisch relevanter Dosen der beiden Alkylantien konnte die Induktion von Apoptose durch vier unabhängige Methoden (Bestimmung der SubG1-Fraktion und der Apoptose- / Nekrose-Frequenz, Aktivierung der Effektorcaspasen-3 und -7 sowie Spaltung von PARP-1) nachgewiesen werden. Die Alkylierungen an der O6-Position des Guanins, welche durch beide Agenzien induziert werden, sind auch in Melanomzellen die wichtigsten Zytotoxizität-bewirkenden Läsionen in der DNA, und die O6-Methylguanin-DNA-Methyltransferase (MGMT) ist folglich ein herausragender Resistenzmarker. Eine der verwendeten Zelllinien (D05) exprimierte p53-Wildtypprotein. Diese Zelllinie war resistenter als alle anderen Zelllinien gegenüber Temozolomid und Fotemustin. Dies weist darauf hin, dass p53 nicht die Apoptoseinduktion in Melanomzellen verstärkt. Die Prozessierung des O6MeG erfolgt über die Mismatch-Reparatur (MMR) unter Generierung von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen (DSBs). Die Untersuchung der durch Temozolomid induzierten DSBs, nachgewiesen durch gammaH2AX-Induktion, korrelierte direkt mit der apoptotischen Antwort von Melanomzelllinien und DSBs können somit als eine entscheidende apoptoseauslösende Größe angesehen werden. Eine Resistenz gegenüber dem methylierenden Temozolomid in der Zelllinie MZ7 konnte auf einen Defekt in der MMR-Schadenserkennung auf der Ebene des MutSalpha-Komplexes zurückgeführt werden. Dieser Defekt hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Fotemustin-vermittelte Apoptoseinduktion. Neben MGMT konnte somit die MMR als Resistenzfaktor gegenüber methylierenden Agenzien in Melanomen identifiziert werden. Die Fotemustin-induzierte Apoptose wurde in Melanomzelllinien im Detail untersucht. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass Fotemustin-bedingte ICLs in Zellen einen G2/M-Arrest im Behandlungszyklus induzieren. Wie anhand G1-arretierter Zellen nachgewiesen werden konnte, war das Durchlaufen der DNA-Replikation vor Erreichen des Arrests für die Induktion der Apoptose notwendig. Die Prozessierung von ICLs ist im Vergleich zu Methylierungen der DNA deutlich komplexer. Dies könnte erklären, warum in Melanomzellen die durch gammaH2AX-Induktion repräsentierten DSBs nicht mit der Sensitivität der einzelnen Zelllinien korreliert. Die Untersuchung unterschiedlich sensitiver Zelllinien zeigte ein vergleichbares Schadensniveau an ICLs und eine ebenso vergleichbare initiale Prozessierung derselben unter Generierung von DSBs. Die Prozessierung dieser sekundären Läsionen, welche anhand der Abnahme von gammaH2AX-Foci untersucht wurde, war hingegen in der sensitiveren Melanomzelllinie deutlich weniger effektiv. Es konnte weiterhin nachgewiesen werden, dass eine uneffektive Prozessierung der sekundären Läsionen einhergeht mit einer verstärkten und länger anhaltenden Aktivierung der in der DSB-Detektion beteiligten Kinase ATM und der Checkpoint Kinase 1. Es wäre daher denkbar, dass eine verstärkte Aktivität dieser Kinasen proapoptotische Signale vermittelt. Unterschiede in der Prozessierung der sekundären Läsionen könnten somit ein wichtiger Marker der ICL-induzierten Apoptose darstellen. Des weitern konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass nach Fotemustingabe die mitochondrial-vermittelte Apoptose einen effektiven Exekutionsweg in Melanomen darstellt. Während Cytochrom C-Freigabe, Bcl-2-Abnahme an den Mitochondrien, Bax-Rekrutierung und Caspase-9 Aktivität nachgewiesen werden konnten, wurden keine Hinweise auf eine Fas-Rezeptor-vermittelte Apoptose gefunden. Die Unfähigkeit, Rezeptor-vermittelte Apoptose zu unterlaufen, könnte die Bedeutungslosigkeit des p53-Gens in Melanomen begründen, da gerade dieser Weg in der Alkylantien-induzierten Apoptose in anderen Zellsystemen eine große Relevanz besitzt. Bei der Suche nach einem alternativen proapoptotischen Signalweg konnten Hinweise für die Beteiligung des Rb/E2F-1-Wegs, welcher über p73 agiert, in einer p53-mutierten Melanomzelllinie gefunden werden. Einen Einfluss der Proteine Survivin und XIAP als Resistenzfaktoren auf die Fotemustin-induzierte Apoptose wurde hingegen nicht nachgewiesen.

Involvement of human chromosome 17 in the control of the metastatic phenotype in melanoma

Fusion of nonmetastatic murine melanoma K1735 C19H cells with metastatic human melanoma A375 C15N cells resulted in a hybrid (termed H7) which was highly metastatic in a nude mouse model. The H7 hybrid retained chromosome 17 as the sole intact human chromosome in the cell. A lung bioassay showed that the K1735 C19H cells were present in the lungs of nude mice with s.c. tumors, yet at 6-weeks after tumor resection, no cells remained in the lung and therefore did not form lung metastases. Examination of various phenotypic properties such as in vivo and in vitro growth demonstrated that phenotypically the H7 hybrid was most like the K1735 C19H cell line except for its metastatic ability. In contrast the H7 hybrid cells containing single or multiple copies of human chromosome 17 with a point mutation at codon 249 (arg-gly) of the p53 gene, readily formed lung metastases. A plasmid containing the human p53 from the H7 hybrid and four other contructs with mutations at codon 143 (val-arg), 175 (arg-his), 249 (arg-ser) and 273 (arg-his) were transfected into K1735 C19H cells. K1735 C19H cells expressing human p53 genes with mutations at codons 249, both the arg-ser mutation and the mutation from the H7 hybrid and 273 produced significantly more lung metastases.^ In vitro assays demonstrated that responses to various cytotoxic and DNA damaging agents varied with the presence of mutant p53 and with the type of agent used. When cultured in mouse lung-conditioned medium, the K1735 C19H cell line was growth-inhibited, while cells containing a mutant human p53 (either on the whole chromosome 17, as in the H7 hybrid cells or from a stably transfected construct) were growth stimulated. Western blot analysis of lung-conditioned media derived from either 6-month or 15-month old mice has detected high levels of soluble Fas ligand in the medium from older animals. Comparison of the levels of Fas receptor on the K1735 C19H cell line and the H7 hybrid were almost identical, but 50% of the K1735 C19H cells were killed in the presence of anti-Fas antibody as opposed to 7% of the H7 hybrid cells. The growth-inhibitory effects of the lung-conditioned medium on the K1735 C19H cells were abrogated by coculture with Fas-Fc, which competes with the Fas ligand for receptor binding. Growth-inhibition of the K1735 C19H was 54% when cultured in 60 $\mu$g/0.2 ml lung-conditioned medium and a control Fc, with only 9% inhibition in 60 $\mu$g/0.2 ml lung-conditioned medium and Fas-Fc. Growth of the H7 cells and K1735 C19H cells transfected with various mutant human p53 genes were unchanged by the presence of either the control Fc or the Fas-Fc. This indicates that the presence of human chromosome 17, and mutant p53 in part protects the cells from Fas:Fas ligand induced apoptosis, and allows the growth of lung metastases. ^

p73 regulates basal and starvation-induced liver metabolism in vivo

As a member of the p53 gene family, p73 regulates cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, neurogenesis, immunity and inflammation. Recently, p73 has been shown to transcriptionally regulate selective metabolic enzymes, such as cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV isoform 1, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and glutaminase-2, resulting in significant effects on metabolism, including hepatocellular lipid metabolism, glutathione homeostasis and the pentose phosphate pathway. In order to further investigate the metabolic effect of p73, here, we compared the global metabolic profile of livers from p73 knockout and wild-type mice under both control and starvation conditions. Our results show that the depletion of all p73 isoforms cause altered lysine metabolism and glycolysis, distinct patterns for glutathione synthesis and Krebs cycle, as well as an elevated pentose phosphate pathway and abnormal lipid accumulation. These results indicate that p73 regulates basal and starvation-induced fuel metabolism in the liver, a finding that is likely to be highly relevant for metabolism-associated disorders, such as diabetes and cancer.

The role of UV radiation in the development of myeloid malignancy in Rag2 knockout mice

Excessive exposure to the UV radiation present in sunlight can lead to the development of skin cancer in humans. Majority of the UV-induced skin tumors in immune-competent mice are highly antigenic in nature. Additionally, they exhibit a high frequency of mutations in the p53 gene, which arise very early in the course of UV radiation and most of them disappear before the development of skin tumors. ^ Initially, this study was to determine whether UV radiation induces skin tumors much earlier in immune deficient Rag2 knockout mice than in immune-competent mice, and if so, compare their antigenic properties and p53 mutation spectra. However, chronic UV irradiation (10 kJ/m2) induced myeloproliferative disease (MPD) as early as 4 weeks in Rag2 knockout mice instead of skin tumors. Conversely, unirradiated Rag2 knockout mice developed MPD at a low frequency, but the frequency increased with the animal's age. Although the UV-irradiated wild type mice (B6129) developed MPD, its frequency was lower and the occurrence much later than the Rag2 knockout mice. ^ This observation led to our new hypothesis that UV irradiation plays a role in the development of MPD in Rag2 knockout mice. After 4 weeks of UV radiation, both histopathology (myeloid:erythroid ratio, number of blast cells) and flow cytometry (mature myeloid, granulocytes and immature cells) demonstrated an increased number of mice affected with the disease in the UV-irradiated Rag2 knockout group than the other groups. ^ We also investigated the role of cytokines and absence of T and B cells in the development of MPD in the Rag2 knockout mice. Results indicated that IL-3 and IL-3Rα chain expression was upregulated in the spleens of the UV-irradiated Rag2 knockout mice (4 weeks). Reconstitution of the Rag2 knockout mice with T and B cells abrogated the UV-accelerated development of MPD. Both histopathology and flow cytometric analysis (mature myeloid cells, granulocytes) showed a decrease in the number of mice affected with the disease in the UV-irradiated, reconstituted group rather than any other group. In summary, this study provides the first experimental evidence that exposure to UV irradiation can lead to the development of MPD in immune deficient mice. ^

Tp53-dependent repression of cell cycle target genes: Global and mechanistic analysis

Most studies of p53 function have focused on genes transactivated by p53. It is less widely appreciated that p53 can repress target genes to affect a particular cellular response. There is evidence that repression is important for p53-induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. It is less clear if repression is important for other p53 functions. A comprehensive knowledge of the genes repressed by p53 and the cellular processes they affect is currently lacking. We used an expression profiling strategy to identify p53-responsive genes following adenoviral p53 gene transfer (Ad-p53) in PC3 prostate cancer cells. A total of 111 genes represented on the Affymetrix U133A microarray were repressed more than two fold (p ≤ 0.05) by p53. An objective assessment of array data quality was carried out using RT-PCR of 20 randomly selected genes. We estimate a confirmation rate of >95.5% for the complete data set. Functional over-representation analysis was used to identify cellular processes potentially affected by p53-mediated repression. Cell cycle regulatory genes exhibited significant enrichment (p ≤ 5E-28) within the repressed targets. Several of these genes are repressed in a p53-dependent manner following DNA damage, but preceding cell cycle arrest. These findings identify novel p53-repressed targets and indicate that p53-induced cell cycle arrest is a function of not only the transactivation of cell cycle inhibitors (e.g., p21), but also the repression of targets that act at each phase of the cell cycle. The mechanism of repression of this set of p53 targets was investigated. Most of the repressed genes identified here do not harbor consensus p53 DNA binding sites but do contain binding sites for E2F transcription factors. We demonstrate a role for E2F/RB repressor complexes in our system. Importantly, p53 is found at the promoter of CDC25A. CDC25A protein is rapidly degraded in response to DNA damage. Our group has demonstrated for the first time that CDC25A is also repressed at the transcript level by p53. This work has important implications for understanding the DNA damage cell cycle checkpoint response and the link between E2F/RB complexes and p53 in the repression of target genes. ^

Genetic epidemiologic methods in risk determination in Li-Fraumeni syndrome

Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is characterized by a variety of neoplasms occurring at a young age with an apparent autosomal dominant transmission. Individuals in pedigrees with LFS have high incidence of second malignancies. Recently LFS has been found to be associated with germline mutations of a tumor-suppressor gene, p53. Because LFS is rare and indeed not a clear-cut disease, it is not known whether all cases of LFS are attributable to p53 germline mutations and how p53 plays in cancer occurrence in such cancer syndrome families. In the present study, DNAs from constitutive cells of two-hundred and thirty-three family members from ten extended pedigrees were screened for p53 mutations. Six out of the ten LFS families had germline mutations at the p53 locus, including point and deletion mutations. In these six families, 55 out of 146 members were carriers of p53 mutations. Except one, all mutations occurred in exons 5 to 8 (i.e., the "hot spot" region) of the p53 gene. The age-specific penetrance of cancer was estimated after the genotype for each family member at risk was determined. The penetrance was 0.15, 0.29, 0.35, 0.77, and 0.91 by 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 year-old, respectively, in male carriers; 0.19, 0.44, 0.76, and 0.90 by 20, 30, 40, and 50 year-old, respectively, in female carriers. These results indicated that one cannot escape from tumorigenesis if one inherits a p53 mutant allele; at least ninety percent of p53 carriers will develop cancer by the age of 60. To evaluate the possible bias due to the unexamined blood-relatives in LFS families, I performed a simulation analysis in which a p53 genotype was assigned to each unexamined person based on his cancer status and liability to cancer. The results showed that the penetrance estimates were not biased by the unexamined relatives. I also determined the sex, site, and age-specific penetrance of breast cancer in female carriers and lung cancer in male carriers. The penetrance of breast cancer in female carriers was 0.81 by age 45; the penetrance of lung cancer in male carriers was 0.78 by age 60, indicating that p53 play a key role for tumorigenesis in common cancers. ^

Potential roles for bcl-2 in the pathogenesis, progression, and treatment of prostate cancer

The most common molecular alterations observed in prostate cancer are increased bcl-2 protein expression and mutations in p53. Understanding the molecular alterations associated with prostate cancer are critical for successful treatment and designing new therapeutic interventions. Hormone-ablation therapy remains the most effective nonsurgical treatment; however, most patients will relapse with hormone-independent, refractory disease. This study addresses how hormone-ablation therapy may increase bcl-2, develops a transgenic model to elucidate the role of bcl-2 multistep prostate carcinogenesis, and assesses how bcl-2 may confer resistance to cell death induction using adenoviral wild-type p53 gene therapy. ^ Two potential androgen response elements were identified in the bcl-2 promoter. Bcl-2 promoter luciferase constructs were transfected into the hormone- sensitive LNCaP prostate cell line. In the presence of dihydrotestosterone, the activity of one bcl-2 promoter luciferase construct was repressed 40% compared to control cells grown in charcoal-stripped serum. Additionally, it was demonstrated that both bcl-2 mRNA and protein were downregulated in the LNCaP cells grown in the presence DHT. This suggests that DHT represses bcl-2 expression through possible direct and indirect mechanisms and that hormone-ablation therapy may actually increases bcl-2 protein. ^ To determine the role of bcl-2 in prostate cancer progression in vivo, probasin-bcl-2 mice were generated where human bcl-2 was targeted to the prostate. Increased bcl-2 expression rendered the ventral prostate more resistant to apoptosis induction following castration. When the probasin-bcl-2 mice were crossed with TRAMP mice, the latency to tumor formation was decreased. The expression of bcl-2 in the double transgenic mice did not affect the incidence of metastases. The double transgenic model will facilitate the study of in vivo effects of specific genetic lesions during the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. ^ The effects of increased bcl-2 protein on wild-type adenoviral p53-mediated cell death were determined in prostatic cell lines. Increased bcl-2 protected PC3 and DU145 cell lines, which possess mutant p53, from p53-mediated cell death and reductions in cell viability. Bcl-2 did not provide the same protective effect in LNCaP cell line, which expresses wild-type p53. This suggests that the ability of bcl-2 to protect against p53-mediated cell death is dependent upon the endogenous status of p53. ^