Synthesis of selenium-linked neoglycoconjugates and pseudodisaccharides

The introduction of organoselenium moieties within the structure of carbohydrates has received attention recently. Herein, we report on the synthesis of selenium-containing neoglycoconjugates and pseudodisaccharides by the reaction of nucleophilic selenium species, generated from sugar diselenides, with chiral N-Boc aziridines and sugar tosylates. The reaction proceeds with moderate to good yields for various substrates. The introduction of organoselenium moieties within the framework of various sugars, with increased levels of complexity, thus allowing the synthesis of disaccharide and glycoconjugate mimetics. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Untersuchungen zur Regulation der Trehalaseaktivität bei der Wanderheuschrecke Locusta migratoria

Flugfähige Insekten sind äußerst leistungsfähige Tiere. Ihre Flugmuskulatur ist das Gewebe mit der höchsten ATP-Umsatzrate im Tierreich. Der hohe Energieumsatz ist möglich durch einen vollständig aeroben Stoffwechsel der Flugmuskulatur, der durch die effiziente Sauerstoffversorgung über das Tracheensystem gewährleistet wird. Andererseits haben Insekten einen offenen Blutkreislauf, d.h. ihre Gewebe werden nicht über Kapillaren mit Substraten versorgt, sondern von der Hämolymphe umspült, die daher eine hohe Konzentration an energieliefernden Substraten haben muss. Als schnell verfügbares Substrat nutzen Wanderheuschrecken bei Beginn eines Fluges als Hauptsubstrat Trehalose, die in hoher Konzentration als Hämolymphzucker vorliegt (20 bis 40mal höhere Konzentration als Glucose). Trehalose ist, anders als Glucose, ein nicht-reduzierender Zucker und daher nicht toxisch. Allerdings muss das Disaccharid Trehalose zu Glucose hydrolysiert werden, bevor sie im Zellstoffwechsel verwertet werden kann. Diese Funktion erfüllt die Trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28), ein Enzym, das membrangebunden ist und nach Zellfraktionierung in der Mikrosomenfraktion erscheint. Es ist schon lange offensichtlich, dass die Aktivität der Trehalase regulierbar sein muss und zwar reversibel (eine Eigenschaft, die für Hydrolasen ungewöhnlich ist), der Mechanismus ist allerdings bislang nicht klar, da alle üblichen Typen von Aktivitätsregulation nicht verwirklicht zu sein scheinen. Die meisten Autoren vermuten, dass die Regulation über den Transport des Substrats erfolgt. Ein Trehalosetransporter konnte allerdings bisher in der Flugmuskulatur von Locusta nicht nachgewiesen werden. In dieser Arbeit stelle ich Experimente vor, die dafür sprechen, dass Trehalase als Ektoenzym aktiv ist (overte Form), während eine inaktive Form (latente Form) in Vesikeln im Cytoplasma vorliegt und per Exocytose reversibel in die Plasmamembran transloziert werden kann. Für die Testung dieser Arbeitshypothese nutzte ich Trehazolin, einen sehr spezifischen Inhibitor der Trehalase, der äußerst fest und dauerhaft im aktiven Zentrum des Enzyms bindet. Dazu war es nötig, die Flugmuskulatur zu fraktionieren, um die Effekte von Trehazolin auf die verschiedenen Formen der Trehalase (gebunden, löslich, overt, latent) zu analysieren. Mit der Arbeitshypothese vereinbar sind die folgenden Befunde: (1) In die Hämolymphe injiziertes Trehazolin hemmt bevorzugt die overte Trehalase und erst bei höheren Dosen und nach längerer Zeit die latente Form. (2) Trehazolin wirkt in hoher Dosis (50µg pro Tier) auch nach Verfütterung, allerdings stark abgeschwächt, da nach 24 Stunden ein signifikanter Effekt nur auf die overte, aber nicht auf die latente Form sichtbar war. (3) In einem Langzeitversuch über 30 Tage führte die einmalige Injektion von 20µg Trehazolin zu einer schnellen Hemmung der overten Trehalase, der eine verzögerte Hemmung der latenten Aktivität folgte. Der Zeitverlauf von Hemmung und Erholung spricht für eine Vorläufer-Produkt-Beziehung zwischen latenter und overter Form. (4) Flugaktivität der Tiere führt zu einer starken Verminderung der latenten Aktivität, falls Trehazolin in der Hämolymphe der Tiere vorhanden war. (5) Neuropeptide könnten die Translokation fördern. Insulin hat einen entsprechenden Effekt, der aber unabhängig ist von der Flugaktivität. (6) Der PI3-Kinasehemmstoff Wortmannin stabilisiert die latente Form der Trehalase. Auch andere Organe als die Flugmuskulatur besitzen Trehalase, aber mit deutlich geringerer Aktivität. In der Sprungmuskulatur könnte auch eine latente Form vorhanden sein, für Darm und Gehirn ist das nicht wahrscheinlich.

Isolierung und Identifizierung von wachstumsfördernden Substanzen für das weinrelevante Bakterium Oenococcus oeni aus Fruchtsäften und Blattextrakten

Neben Tomatensaft wurde eine Vielzahl von Säften und Blattextrakten als Medienzusätze auf Wachstumsförderung bei 30 verschiedenen Oenococcus oeni-Stämmen getestet. Es zeigte sich eine breite Wachstumsförderung bei allen Zusätzen mit Ausnahme von Zitronensaft, sodass die Wachstumsfaktoren keine tomatenspezifischen Inhaltsstoffe sein können und eher ubiquitär in der Pflanzenwelt vorkommen. Das Ausmaß der Wachstumsförderung war stammabhängig sehr unterschiedlich und Tomatensaft stellte keineswegs für alle Stämme den optimalen Medienzusatz dar. Durch Schälen der Früchte war eine für die Analytik hilfreiche Abtrennung schalenspezifischer Inhaltsstoffe möglich, wobei auch die Schalenextrakte großes Potential für die Suche nach Wachstumsfaktoren offenbarten und die Wichtigkeit einer Auftrennung der Frucht in die verschiedenen Fruchtbereiche betonte. Aus Tomatensaft konnte analytisch der anorganische Wachstumsfaktor Mangan identifiziert werden. Die größten Zelldichten der Oenokokken-Stämme wurden hierbei bei 67 µM und 34 mM Manganzusatz erreicht. Bei 13 von 20 getesteten Oenokokkenstämmen konnte bei Zusatz von 34 mM Mangan der Tomatensaft ersetzt werden, bei 4 Stämmen (z. B. Stamm B2) fehlten jedoch noch weitere Wachstumsfaktoren und bei 3 Stämmen (z. B. Stamm B120) kam es zu einem verfrühten Absterben. Da weitere Mineralstoffe sowie veraschte Säfte und Blattextrakte keinen positiven Einfluß auf die Oenokokken-Zelldichte hatten, wurde mittels semipräparativer HPLC nach zusätzlichen organischen Wachstumsfaktoren für den Stamm B2 gesucht. Hierzu wurde der nachfolgende Wachstums-Assay miniaturisiert und erfolgreich auf Microtiterplatten etabliert. Es gelang die Isolierung und Identifizierung eines wachstumsfördernden Trisaccharides aus Mangoschalen-Extrakt, das aus den Zuckern Glucose, Rhamnose und Arabinose bestand. Von den monomeren Zuckern erhöhte lediglich die Arabinose die Zelldichte, das Optimum lag bei 1,5 g/l. Auch aus Zitronenmesokarp-Extrakt war die Isolierung eines wachstumsfördernden arabinosehaltigen Disaccharides möglich, die Menge reichte jedoch noch nicht für eine genaue Identifizierung aus. Desweiteren erwies sich 1,5 g/l Cystein als wachstumsstimulierend. Ein Zusatz aller gefundenen Wachstumsfaktoren (34 mM Mangan, 1,5 g/l Arabinose und 1,5 g/l Cystein) ersetzte den Tomatensaft bei weiteren Oenokokken-Stämmen (z.B. Stamm B120) komplett, wobei bei allen Stämmen sogar eine schnellere Anzucht erfolgte. Neben dem Tomatensaft war auch der Zusatz von Hefeextrakt zum Grundmedium nicht mehr nötig, sodass ein neues vereinfachtes Medium für die Anzucht von Oenokokken mit komplexen Nährstoffansprüchen vorgeschlagen werden konnte. Lediglich beim Stamm B2 zeigte sich noch ein OD-Unterschied von 0,2 in der stationären Phase, der nach Adsorptionsversuchen an Polyvinylpolypyrrolidon auf noch unidentifizierte Polyphenole im Tomatensaft zurückzuführen ist. Aus grünem Tee erwies sich das Polyphenol Epigallocatechingallat (EGCG) konzentrationsabhängig sowohl als Hemmstoff (>550 mg/l EGCG) als auch Wachstumsfaktor (400-500 mg/l EGCG) für den Oenokokken-Stamm B2. Der hemmende als auch der fördernde Einfluss auf das Wachstum wurde mittels Sytox/DAPI-Färbung bestätigt. Der sogenannte „Tomatensaft-Faktor“ ist also nicht eine spezielle Substanz, sondern das synergistische Zusammenwirken mehrerer einfacher Substanzen wie Mineralstoffe, Aminosäuren, Kohlenhydrate und Polyphenole. Auch sind die Oenokokken-Stämme bezüglich ihres Nährstoffbedarfes sehr unterschiedlich, sodass für jeden Stamm einzeln das optimale Substratspektrum ermittelt werden muss.

Ramachandran-type Plots for Glycosidic Linkages: Examples from Molecular Dynamics Simulations using the Glycam06 Force Field

The goals of this article are to (1) provide further validation of the Glycam06 force field, specifically for its use in implicit solvent molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, and (2) to present the extension of G.N. Ramachandran's idea of plotting amino acid phi and psi angles to the glycosidic phi, psi, and omega angles formed between carbohydrates. As in traditional Ramachandran plots, these carbohydrate Ramachandran-type (carb-Rama) plots reveal the coupling between the glycosidic angles by displaying the allowed and disallowed conformational space. Considering two-bond glycosidic linkages, there are 18 possible conformational regions that can be defined by (α, ϕ, ψ) and (β, ϕ, ψ), whereas for three-bond linkages, there are 54 possible regions that can be defined by (α, ϕ, ψ, ω) and (β, ϕ, ψ, ω). Illustrating these ideas are molecular dynamic simulations on an implicitly hydrated oligosaccharide (700 ns) and its eight constituent disaccharides (50 ns/disaccharide). For each linkage, we compare and contrast the oligosaccharide and respective disaccharide carb-Rama plots, validate the simulations and the Glycam06 force field through comparison to experimental data, and discuss the general trends observed in the plots.

Novel mutations in the human sucrase-isomaltase gene (SI) that cause congenital carbohydrate malabsorption

Disaccharide intolerance I or congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency (CSID) is a disorder leading to maldigestion of disaccharides, which is autosomal recessively inherited. Here we analyzed the sucrase-isomaltase (SI) gene from 11 patients of Hungarian origin with congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency. Variants in the SI gene had previously been described in CSID patients, which cause amino acid exchanges that affect the transport, the processing, or the function of the SI protein. None of our patients had known mutations for CSID. Our analyses revealed 43 SI variants in total, 15 within exons and one at a splice site. Eight of the exonic mutations lead to amino acid exchanges, causing hypomorph or null alleles. One new variation affects a splice site, which is also predicted to result in a null allele. All potential pathological alterations were present on one allele only. In six out of the 11 patients the phenotype of CSID could be explained by compound heterozygosity.

Normal human serum contains high levels of anti-Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc antibodies

BACKGROUND: Natural xenoreactive antibodies (Abs) directed against the Bdi-epitope (Gal alpha 1-3Gal beta) on the cells of non-primate mammals take part in hyperacute rejection of xenotransplanted organs. We found that some Abs, which were one-step affinity purified on Bdi-Sepharose, cross-reacted with the disaccharide Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc beta. The epitope Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc has not been identified on mammals or bacterial polysaccharides yet. METHODS: To isolate the antibodies of the corresponding specificity the disaccharide was immobilized on Sepharose and antibodies were affinity purified from pooled serum of blood group O individuals. RESULTS: These one-step purified Abs cross-reacted with Bdi, but after a prior absorption step on Bdi-Sepharose no cross-reactivity with Bdi was observed any longer. Surprisingly, the quantity of anti-Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc isolated from the same serum pool, 4-7 microg/ml, was equal to that of anti-Bdi or more. Independently of ABO blood groups all the tested healthy donors had anti-Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc Abs at a similar level. Monospecific anti-Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc Abs were not cytotoxic towards porcine cells. CONCLUSIONS: 1. The actual concentration of monospecific, xenoreactive Gal alpha 1-3Gal beta Abs in blood may be considerably lower than the value referred to in the literature for 'anti-alpha Gal' or 'anti-Galili' antibodies. 2. Anti-Gal alpha 1-4GlcNAc Abs seem not to be important for xenotransplantation.

Immuno-detection of anthrose containing tetrasaccharide in the exosporium of Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus strains

AIMS: Bacillus anthracis strains of various origins were analysed with the view to describe intrinsic and persistent structural components of the Bacillus collagen-like protein of anthracis glycoprotein associated anthrose containing tetrasaccharide in the exosporium. METHODS AND RESULTS: The tetrasaccharide consists of three rhamnose residues and an unique monosaccharide--anthrose. As anthrose was not found in spores of related strains of bacteria, we envisioned the detection of B. anthracis spores based on antibodies against anthrose-containing polysaccharides. Carbohydrate-protein conjugates containing the synthetic tetrasaccharide, an anthrose-rhamnose disaccharide or anthrose alone were employed to immunize mice. All three formulations were immunogenic and elicited IgG responses with different fine specificities. All sera and monoclonal antibodies derived from tetrasaccharide immunized mice cross-reacted not only with spore lysates of a panel of virulent B. anthracis strains, but also with some of the B. cereus strains tested. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that antibodies to synthetic carbohydrates are useful tools for epitope analyses of complex carbohydrate antigens and for the detection of particular target structures in biological specimens. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Although not strictly specific for B. anthracis spores, antibodies against the tetrasaccharide may have potential as immuno-capturing components for a highly sensitive spore detection system.

Tab. 1: Summary of available data about antifreeze peptides of polar fish

In the blood of Antarctic notothenioid and Arctic gadiform fishes, freezing is inhibited by antifreeze glycopeptide macromolecules (AFGP). These antifreeze molecules are built up of repeating tripeptide units (Ala-Ala-Thr)n, to which the disaccharide fl-D-galactosyl-(1->3)a-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine is linked through the hydroxyl oxygen of the threonyl residue. Species of Liparididae, Zoarcidae, Cottidae and Pleuronectidae synthezise only unglycosylated antifreeze peptides (AFP). It could be demonstrated for the Antarctic silverfish Pleuragramma antarcticum that the synthesis of AFGP is not constitutive but rather regulated by water temperature. Moreover a novel glycopeptid was isolated and characterised from P. antarcticum, the Pleuragramma-antifreeze glycopeptid (PAGP). The level of antifreeze concentration was dependent on the ambient water temperature, the depth of distribution, the life cycle and the evolution of the species. Surprisingly, detectable AFGPs in perciform fish of the Antarctic and gadiform fish of the Arctic and Antarctic could illustrate, that before the continental drift occurred a precursor glycopeptid existed, and that the existence of freezing resistance in some species reflects the past glaciation. The wide distribution and high heterogeneity of AFPs point to the assumption that these peptides are results of cold shock stress responses.

A Selaginella lepidophylla Trehalose-6-Phosphate Synthase Complements Growth and Stress-Tolerance Defects in a Yeast tps1 Mutant1

The accumulation of the disaccharide trehalose in anhydrobiotic organisms allows them to survive severe environmental stress. A plant cDNA, SlTPS1, encoding a 109-kD protein, was isolated from the resurrection plant Selaginella lepidophylla, which accumulates high levels of trehalose. Protein-sequence comparison showed that SlTPS1 shares high similarity to trehalose-6-phosphate synthase genes from prokaryotes and eukaryotes. SlTPS1 mRNA was constitutively expressed in S. lepidophylla. DNA gel-blot analysis indicated that SlTPS1 is present as a single-copy gene. Transformation of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae tps1Δ mutant disrupted in the ScTPS1 gene with S. lepidophylla SlTPS1 restored growth on fermentable sugars and the synthesis of trehalose at high levels. Moreover, the SlTPS1 gene introduced into the tps1Δ mutant was able to complement both deficiencies: sensitivity to sublethal heat treatment at 39°C and induced thermotolerance at 50°C. The osmosensitive phenotype of the yeast tps1Δ mutant grown in NaCl and sorbitol was also restored by the SlTPS1 gene. Thus, SlTPS1 protein is a functional plant homolog capable of sustaining trehalose biosynthesis and could play a major role in stress tolerance in S. lepidophylla.

Purification of the Trehalase GMTRE1 from Soybean Nodules and Cloning of Its cDNA. GMTRE1 Is Expressed at a Low Level in Multiple Tissues1

Trehalose (α-d-glucopyranosyl-1,1-α-d-glucopyranoside), a disaccharide widespread among microbes and lower invertebrates, is generally believed to be nonexistent in higher plants. However, the recent discovery of Arabidopsis genes whose products are involved in trehalose synthesis has renewed interest in the possibility of a function of trehalose in higher plants. We previously showed that trehalase, the enzyme that degrades trehalose, is present in nodules of soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.), and we characterized the enzyme as an apoplastic glycoprotein. Here we describe the purification of this trehalase to homogeneity and the cloning of a full-length cDNA encoding this enzyme, named GMTRE1 (G. max trehalase 1). The amino acid sequence derived from the open reading frame of GMTRE1 shows strong homology to known trehalases from bacteria, fungi, and animals. GMTRE1 is a single-copy gene and is expressed at a low but constant level in many tissues.

Transbilayer inhibition of protein kinase C by the lipophosphoglycan from Leishmania donovani.

Lipophosphoglycan (LPG), the predominant molecule on the surface of the parasite Leishmania donovani, has previously been shown to be a potent inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC) isolated from rat brain. The mechanism by which LPG inhibits PKC was further investigated in this study. LPG was found to inhibit the PKC alpha-catalyzed phosphorylation of histone in assays using large unilamellar vesicles composed of 1-palmitoyl, 2-oleoyl phosphatidylserine and 1-palmitoyl, 2-oleoyl phosphatidylcholine either with or without 1% 1,2 diolein added. The results also indicated that while PKC binding to sucrose-loaded vesicles was not substantially reduced in the presence of LPG at concentrations of 1-2%, the activity of membrane-bound PKC was inhibited by 70%. This inhibition of the membrane-bound form of PKC is not a consequence of reduced substrate availability to the membrane. However, Km shifted from approximately 31 +/- 4 microM to 105 +/- 26 microM in the presence of 5% LPG. LPG caused PKC to bind to membranes without inducing a conformational change as revealed by the lack of an increased susceptibility to trypsin. An LPG fragment containing only one repeating disaccharide unit was not as effective as the entire LPG molecule or of larger fragments in inhibiting the membrane-bound form of the enzyme. The shorter fragments were also less potent in raising the bilayer to hexagonal phase transition temperature of a model membrane. LPG is also able to inhibit the membrane-bound form of PKC alpha from the inner monolayer of large unilamellar vesicles, the opposite monolayer to which the enzyme binds in our assay. Inhibition is likely a result of alterations in the physical properties of the membrane. To our knowledge, this is the first example of a membrane additive that can inhibit the membrane-bound form of PKC in the presence of other lipid cofactors.

Regulation of the expression of nitric oxide synthase and leishmanicidal activity by glycoconjugates of Leishmania lipophosphoglycan in murine macrophages.

Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) glycoconjugates from promastigotes of Leishmania were not able to induce the expression of the cytokine-inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) by the murine macrophage cell line, J774. However, they synergize with interferon gamma to stimulate the macrophages to express high levels of iNOS. This synergistic effect was critically time-dependent. Preincubation of J774 cells with the LPG glycans 4-18 h before stimulation with interferon gamma resulted in a significant reduction in the expression of iNOS mRNA and of NO synthesis, compared with cells preincubated with culture medium alone. The regulatory effect on the induction of iNOS by LPG is located in the LPG phosphoglycan disaccharide backbone. Synthetic fragments of this backbone had a similar regulatory effect on NO synthesis. Further, the production of NO by activated macrophages in the present system was correlated directly with the leishmanicidal capacity of the cells. These data therefore demonstrate that LPG glycoconjugates have a profound effect on the survival of Leishmania parasites through their ability to regulate the expression of iNOS by macrophages.

Low molecular weight EPS II of Rhizobium meliloti allows nodule invasion in Medicago sativa.

Effective invasion of alfalfa by Rhizobium meliloti Rm1021 normally requires the presence of succinoglycan, an exopolysaccharide (EPS) produced by the bacterium. However, Rm1021 has the ability to produce a second EPS (EPS II) that can suppress the symbiotic defects of succinoglycan-deficient strains. EPS II is a polymer of modified glucose-(beta-1,3)-galactose subunits and is produced by Rm1021 derivatives carrying either an expR101 or mucR mutation. If the ability to synthesize succinoglycan is blocked genetically, expR101 derivatives of Rm1021 are nodulation-proficient, whereas mucR derivatives of Rm1021 are not. The difference in nodulation proficiency between these two classes of EPS II-producing strains is due to the specific production of a low molecular weight form of EPS II by expR101 strains. A low molecular weight EPS II fraction consisting of 15-20 EPS II disaccharide subunits efficiently allows nodule invasion by noninfective strains when present in amounts as low as 7 pmol per plant, suggesting that low molecular weight EPS II may act as a symbiotic signal during infection.

The formulation of artificial reference standards for use within the ELISPOT assay

Whether to assess the functionality of equipment or as a determinate for the accuracy of assays, reference standards are essential for the purposes of standardisation and validation. The ELISPOT assay, developed over thirty years ago, has emerged as a leading immunological assay in the development of novel vaccines for the assessment of efficacy. However, with its widespread use, there is a growing demand for a greater level of standardisation across different laboratories. One of the major difficulties in achieving this goal has been the lack of definitive reference standards. This is partly due to the ex vivo nature of the assay, which relies on cells being placed directly into the wells. Thus, the aim of this thesis was to produce an artificial reference standard using liposomes, for use within the assay. Liposomes are spherical bilayer vesicles with an enclosed aqueous compartment and therefore are models for biological membranes. Initial work examined pre-design considerations in order to produce an optimal formulation that would closely mimic the action of the cells ordinarily placed on the assay. Recognition of the structural differences between liposomes and cells led to the formulation of liposomes with increased density. This was achieved by using a synthesised cholesterol analogue. By incorporating this cholesterol analogue in liposomes, increased sedimentation rates were observed within the first few hours. The optimal liposome formulation from these studies was composed of 2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC), cholesterol (Chol) and brominated cholesterol (Brchol) at a 16:4:12 µMol ratio, based on a significantly higher (p<0.01) sedimentation (as determined by a percentage transmission of 59 ± 5.9 % compared to the control formulation at 29 ± 12 % after four hours). By considering a range of liposome formulations ‘proof of principle’ for using liposomes as ELISPOT reference standards was shown; recombinant IFN? cytokine was successfully entrapped within vesicles of different lipid compositions, which were able to promote spot formation within the ELISPOT assay. Using optimised liposome formulations composed of phosphatidylcholine with or without cholesterol (16 µMol total lipid) further development was undertaken to produce an optimised, scalable protocol for the production of liposomes as reference standards. A linear increase in spot number by the manipulation of cytokine concentration and/or lipid concentrations was not possible, potentially due to the saturation that occurred within the base of wells. Investigations into storage of the formulations demonstrated the feasibility of freezing and lyophilisation with disaccharide cryoprotectants, but also highlighted the need for further protocol optimisation to achieve a robust reference standard upon storage. Finally, the transfer of small-scale production to a medium lab-scale batch (40 mL) demonstrated this was feasible within the laboratory using the optimised protocol.

Structural and Biochemical Dissection of the Trehalose Biosynthetic Complex in Pathogenic Fungi

Trehalose is a non-reducing disaccharide essential for pathogenic fungal survival and virulence. The biosynthesis of trehalose requires the trehalose-6-phosphate synthase, Tps1, and trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase, Tps2. More importantly, the trehalose biosynthetic pathway is absent in mammals, conferring this pathway as an ideal target for antifungal drug design. However, lack of germane biochemical and structural information hinders antifungal drug design against these targets.

In this dissertation, macromolecular X-ray crystallography and biochemical assays were employed to understand the structures and functions of proteins involved in the trehalose biosynthetic pathway. I report here the first eukaryotic Tps1 structures from Candida albicans (C. albicans) and Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus) with substrates or substrate analogs. These structures reveal the key residues involved in substrate binding and catalysis. Subsequent enzymatic assays and cellular assays highlight the significance of these key Tps1 residues in enzyme function and fungal stress response. The Tps1 structure captured in its transition-state with a non-hydrolysable inhibitor demonstrates that Tps1 adopts an “internal return like” mechanism for catalysis. Furthermore, disruption of the trehalose biosynthetic complex formation through abolishing Tps1 dimerization reveals that complex formation has regulatory function in addition to trehalose production, providing additional targets for antifungal drug intervention.

I also present here the structure of the Tps2 N-terminal domain (Tps2NTD) from C. albicans, which may be involved in the proper formation of the trehalose biosynthetic complex. Deletion of the Tps2NTD results in a temperature sensitive phenotype. Further, I describe in this dissertation the structures of the Tps2 phosphatase domain (Tps2PD) from C. albicans, A. fumigatus and Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans) in multiple conformational states. The structures of the C. albicans Tps2PD -BeF3-trehalose complex and C. neoformans Tps2PD(D24N)-T6P complex reveal extensive interactions between both glucose moieties of the trehalose involving all eight hydroxyl groups and multiple residues of both the cap and core domains of Tps2PD. These structures also reveal that steric hindrance is a key underlying factor for the exquisite substrate specificity of Tps2PD. In addition, the structures of Tps2PD in the open conformation provide direct visualization of the conformational changes of this domain that are effected by substrate binding and product release.

Last, I present the structure of the C. albicans trehalose synthase regulatory protein (Tps3) pseudo-phosphatase domain (Tps3PPD) structure. Tps3PPD adopts a haloacid dehydrogenase superfamily (HADSF) phosphatase fold with a core Rossmann-fold domain and a α/β fold cap domain. Despite lack of phosphatase activity, the cleft between the Tps3PPD core domain and cap domain presents a binding pocket for a yet uncharacterized ligand. Identification of this ligand could reveal the cellular function of Tps3 and any interconnection of the trehalose biosynthetic pathway with other cellular metabolic pathways.

Combined, these structures together with significant biochemical analyses advance our understanding of the proteins responsible for trehalose biosynthesis. These structures are ready to be exploited to rationally design or optimize inhibitors of the trehalose biosynthetic pathway enzymes. Hence, the work described in this thesis has laid the groundwork for the design of Tps1 and Tps2 specific inhibitors, which ultimately could lead to novel therapeutics to treat fungal infections.