Auditoría de gestión que contribuya a mejorar la atención del servicio a los usuarios en Correos de El Salvador en la oficina departamental de San Miguel año 2014

Los auditores deben exponer los objetivos por los que se llevó a cabo la auditoría. Expresar claramente los fines del informe implica normalmente indicar el asunto materia de la auditoría y el aspecto del desempeño examinado y, puesto que los resultados de la auditoría dependen de sus objetivos, los hallazgos y las conclusiones a que se ha llegado. En la sección del informe que se refiere al alcance se deberá indicar la profundidad y cobertura del trabajo que se haya realizado para cumplir los objetivos de auditoría. Los auditores deben, en la medida que sea aplicable, establecer la relación que existe entre la muestra revisada y el universo, identificar la entidad, ubicación geográfica, especificar los tipos y fuentes de evidencias utilizados y explicar los problemas relacionados con la calidad u otros problemas relacionados con la evidencia. Los auditores también deben incluir una referencia a las limitaciones impuestas al enfoque de auditoría debido a las limitaciones de la información o del alcance de la auditoría. En la sección del informe referente a la metodología, se deben explicar claramente las técnicas que se han empleado para obtener y analizar la evidencia necesaria para cumplir con los objetivos de la auditoría. Esta explicación debe identificar cualquier supuesto significativo que se haya usado al ejecutar la auditoría; también debe describir las técnicas comparativas que se hayan aplicado, describir los criterios e indicadores que fueron utilizados. Los auditores deben incluir en sus informes los logros y/o realizaciones importantes de la administración, especialmente cuando las medidas adoptadas para mejorar un área pueden aplicarse en otras; los logros importantes de la administración que se han constatado durante la auditoría, comprendidos en el alcance de la auditoría y necesarios para cumplir sus objetivos, deben mencionarse en el informe de auditoría, junto con las deficiencias detectadas. Esa información será necesaria para presentar objetivamente la situación que han observado los auditores y para que el informe tenga el debido equilibrio. Además, el hecho que el informe mencione los logros puede conducir a propiciar que otros organismos gubernamentales que lean el informe adopten medidas para mejorar su desempeño.

Estudios de los mecanismos genéticos de producción de fibra en camélidos sudamericanos y ovinos Merino

estructura del vellón y de su pigmentación, en todas las especies identificadas como importantes en las áreas desfavorecidas. Esta idea del estudio Inter. e intra específico se ve favorecida por el principio de la homología interespecífica, que es aplicable a toda la biología de las faneras de los mamíferos. Una buena parte de las hipótesis genéticas planteadas ya han sido probadas, sólo restan testear la hipótesis del blanco uniforme dominante con penetrancia incompleta en Camélidos y caprinos, el eumelánico marrón recesivo con respecto al negro, la herencia del vellón doble capa como aditiva no-mendeliana, la heredibilidad y las correlaciones genéticas significativas en características del folículo y de la fibra en Camélidos y la existencia de interacción genotipo por ambiente en el diámetro medio en Merino. En todos nuestros casos se estudiarán muestras de piel y de fibra extraídas simultáneamente de animales que tienen relación de parentesco conocido y se procesarán en el laboratorio de fibras. Los parámetros genéticos se estimarán con la metodología de máxima verosimilitud restringida (DFREML). Se analiza la factibilidad de testear la presencia de genes mayores aditivos en la determinación de la estructura del vellón en Camélidos (doble capa y lustre) utilizando los esquemas de apareamiento y análisis de segregación clásicos. La salida final de este proyecto es el diseño de programas de mejoramiento genético ajustados a las realidades ambientales y productivas de cada situación particular en donde el SUPPRAD interviene con proyectos de desarrollo.

Electricidad, industria y cooperativismo en la provincia de Córdoba, 1946-1980

Esta investigación intenta demostrar que el importante impulso de electrificación operado desde la creación de EPEC permitió extender la cobertura del servicio eléctrico y facilitó una rápida incorporación de hogares y empresas al sistema, lo que se tradujo en un importante crecimiento de la cantidad de usuarios conectados tanto en las zonas urbanas como rurales y en una transformación de la estructura sectorial del consumo que benefició a los rubros industrial y cooperativo. Dos objetivos fundamentales la guían: a) estudiar el proceso de electrificación, el papel jugado en el mismo por EPEC y su influencia en el desenvolvimiento industrial y en el desarrollo del interior provincial a través de las cooperativas eléctricas, y b) la formación de recursos humanos, en tanto que los objetivos específicos son: profundizar el estudio del proceso de electrificación como instrumento utilizado por el Estado para promover el desarrollo industrial y agropecuario y al mismo tiempo mejorar las condiciones de vida de los cordobeses; estudiar la actividad empresaria de EPEC; reconstruir la historia de algunas cooperativas eléctricas cordobesas prestando atención al desarrollo económico, social y cultural de sus zonas de influencia; analizar las particularidades que distinguen al movimiento cooperativo eléctrico cordobés, considerando que las mismas pueden ser fruto tanto del accionar del Estado provincial como de las características propias de los lugares en que se crean; proseguir con el estudio del avance del proceso de industrialización, especialmente en el sector automotriz, relacionando la demanda de fuerza motriz con la evolución de la oferta de energía eléctrica

La equidad y la calidad educativa en la ciudad de Córdoba (Programa: indicadores ciudadanos y participación para una ciudad justa, democrática y sustentable).

El proyecto articula la investigación, la participación y la proyección social de la universidad. Desde el desarrollo de las capacidades y actividades propias de la investigación, el equipo del proyecto apoya y sirve de soporte técnico al proceso de construcción de indicadores de educación en el marco de la Red Ciudadana Nuestra Córdoba. El objetivo del proyecto es contribuir al conocimiento sobre las problemáticas educativas, que permitan profundizar el debate público, como la participación ciudadana y la inclusión en la agenda del Estado de problemáticas que obstaculizan la equidad y la calidad educativa, reconociendo y desarrollando el potencial que la democratización del conocimiento y la información implican para la transformación social orientada al bien común. La propuesta pretende relevar información en las escuelas de nivel inicial y primario de la ciudad de Córdoba, que permita evaluar la aplicación de programas y el cumplimiento de los derechos educativos. La información generada y sistematizada por el sistema educativo permite monitorear algunos derechos, fundamentalmente los que pueden categorizarse en condiciones y cobertura del sistema educativo, pero impide absolutamente observar el cumplimiento de los derechos incluidos en las categorías de calidad y ciudadanía. Los objetivos específicos se pueden sintetizar en el siguiente párrafo: Monitorear el ejercicio de los derechos educativos de los niños de la ciudad de Córdoba; desarrollar las capacidades para la investigación interdisciplinaria potenciando los recursos humanos, tecnológicos e institucionales existentes en la Universidad Católica de Córdoba; potenciar vínculos con instituciones académicas, de la sociedad civil, empresariales y ciudadanas con el fin de ejercer nuevas formas de responsabilidad, participación y acción ante los problemas educativos que aquejan a nuestra sociedad. Se priorizan estrategias que permiten poner de manifiesto de manera primordial los problemas educativos y que sirvan de insumo para la deliberación pública y la participación ciudadana; ejerciendo distintas formas de monitoreo y control ciudadano de la acción Estatal en todos los niveles y jurisdicciones con injerencia y responsabilidades vinculadas a cuestiones educativas y también, promoviendo y facilitando procesos de participación y deliberación que amplíen y democraticen los espacios y mecanismos de formación de la voluntad colectiva

Public and private learning from prices, strategic substitutability and complementarity, and equilibrium multiplicity

We study a general static noisy rational expectations model where investors have private information about asset payoffs, with common and private components, and about their own exposure to an aggregate risk factor, and derive conditions for existence and uniqueness (or multiplicity) of equilibria. We find that a main driver of the characterization of equilibria is whether the actions of investors are strategic substitutes or complements. This latter property in turn is driven by the strength of a private learning channel from prices, arising from the multidimensional sources of asymmetric information, in relation to the usual public learning channel. When the private learning channel is strong (weak) in relation to the public we have strong (weak) strategic complementarity in actions and potentially multiple (unique) equilibria. The results enable a precise characterization of whether information acquisition decisions are strategic substitutes or complements. We find that the strategic substitutability in information acquisition result obtained in Grossman and Stiglitz (1980) is robust. JEL Classification: D82, D83, G14 Keywords: Rational expectations equilibrium, asymmetric information, risk exposure, hedging, supply information, information acquisition.

Monitoring of sedation during neuroaxial blockade.

Abstract Study objective: The arousal state changes during spinal anesthesia. It is not clear if BIS and others devices could monitor the induced neuroaxial blockade sedation. Our objective was evaluate BIS and entropy values when spinal anesthesia is done. Design: We developed a prospective study. Patients: 40 patients were included in this study, ASA I-III, over 60 years old, undergoing spinal anesthesia, without premedication scheduled for orthopedics procedures. Intervention: Spinal anesthesia was performed with the unseated volunteer in the lateral decubitus position with a 25-gauge Whitacre needle at L2-L3 space, andanesthesia was done with 12 mg of 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine. Patients were positioned supine for 5 min after spinal anesthesia. Measurements: Observer’s Assessment of Alertness/Sedation OAA/S, response (RE) and state entropy (SE) and BIS, and standard hemodynamic measures. Main results: Statistical analysis were performed by Wilcoxon test or ANOVA, p<0.05 was considered statistically significant.RE and BIS showed a better correlation with the OAA/S scale values (Pk 0.81 and 0.82) than SE (Pk 0.69). The OAA/S, RE and SE showed significative differences from basal values after 30 min of neuroaxial anesthesia (ANOVA p<0.05). BIS showed differences after 40 min (ANOVA p<0.05). There were no differences between BIS and RE values along the study (ANOVA p>0.05). Conclusions: The spinal anesthesia decreased the cortical activity and these were founded by OAA/S scale and depth anesthetics monitors. OAA/S was a more sensitive value of this induced sedation. BIS and RE showed a better correlation with OAA/S scale than SE.

Permanent pacemaker implantation after transcatheter aortic valve implantation: impact on late clinical outcomes and left ventricular function.

BACKGROUND Very few data exist on the clinical impact of permanent pacemaker implantation (PPI) after transcatheter aortic valve implantation. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of PPI after transcatheter aortic valve implantation on late outcomes in a large cohort of patients. METHODS AND RESULTS A total of 1556 consecutive patients without prior PPI undergoing transcatheter aortic valve implantation were included. Of them, 239 patients (15.4%) required a PPI within the first 30 days after transcatheter aortic valve implantation. At a mean follow-up of 22±17 months, no association was observed between the need for 30-day PPI and all-cause mortality (hazard ratio, 0.98; 95% confidence interval, 0.74-1.30; P=0.871), cardiovascular mortality (hazard ratio, 0.81; 95% confidence interval, 0.56-1.17; P=0.270), and all-cause mortality or rehospitalization for heart failure (hazard ratio, 1.00; 95% confidence interval, 0.77-1.30; P=0.980). A lower rate of unexpected (sudden or unknown) death was observed in patients with PPI (hazard ratio, 0.31; 95% confidence interval, 0.11-0.85; P=0.023). Patients with new PPI showed a poorer evolution of left ventricular ejection fraction over time (P=0.017), and new PPI was an independent predictor of left ventricular ejection fraction decrease at the 6- to 12-month follow-up (estimated coefficient, -2.26; 95% confidence interval, -4.07 to -0.44; P=0.013; R(2)=0.121). CONCLUSIONS The need for PPI was a frequent complication of transcatheter aortic valve implantation, but it was not associated with any increase in overall or cardiovascular death or rehospitalization for heart failure after a mean follow-up of ≈2 years. Indeed, 30-day PPI was a protective factor for the occurrence of unexpected (sudden or unknown) death. However, new PPI did have a negative effect on left ventricular function over time.

Edge vascular response after polymer-free vs. polymer-based paclitaxel-eluting stent implantation.

BACKGROUND It is unknown if lack of polymer can provoke a different edge response in drug-eluting stents. The aim of this study was to compare edge vascular response between polymer-free paclitaxel-eluting stent (PF-PES) and polymer-based paclitaxel-eluting stents (PB-PES). METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 165 eligible patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention were prospectively randomized 1:1 to receive either PF-PES or PB-PES. Those patients with paired intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) after procedure and at 9-month follow-up were included in this analysis.Seventy-six patients with 84 lesions, divided into PB-PES (38 patients, 41 lesions) and PF-PES groups (38 patients, 43 lesions) had paired post-procedure and 9-month follow-up IVUS and were therefore included in this substudy. There was a significant lumen decrease at the proximal edge of PF-PES (from 9.02±3.06 mm(2)to 8.47±3.05 mm(2); P=0.040), and a significant plaque increase at the distal edges of PF-PES (from 4.39±2.73 mm(2)to 4.78±2.63 mm(2); P=0.004). At the distal edge there was a significant plaque increase in the PF-PES compared to PB-PES (+8.0% vs. -0.6%, respectively; P=0.015) with subsequent lumen reduction (-5.2% vs. +6.0%, respectively; P=0.024). CONCLUSIONS PF-PES had significant plaque increase and lumen reduction at the distal edge as compared to PB-PES, probably due to difference in polymer-based drug-release kinetics between the 2 platforms.

Genetic differentiation for size at first reproduction through male versus female functions in the widespread Mediterranean tree Pinus pinaster.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The study of local adaptation in plant reproductive traits has received substantial attention in short-lived species, but studies conducted on forest trees are scarce. This lack of research on long-lived species represents an important gap in our knowledge, because inferences about selection on the reproduction and life history of short-lived species cannot necessarily be extrapolated to trees. This study considers whether the size for first reproduction is locally adapted across a broad geographical range of the Mediterranean conifer species Pinus pinaster. In particular, the study investigates whether this monoecious species varies genetically among populations in terms of whether individuals start to reproduce through their male function, their female function or both sexual functions simultaneously. Whether differences among populations could be attributed to local adaptation across a climatic gradient is then considered. METHODS: Male and female reproduction and growth were measured during early stages of sexual maturity of a P. pinaster common garden comprising 23 populations sampled across the species range. Generalized linear mixed models were used to assess genetic variability of early reproductive life-history traits. Environmental correlations with reproductive life-history traits were tested after controlling for neutral genetic structure provided by 12 nuclear simple sequence repeat markers. KEY RESULTS: Trees tended to reproduce first through their male function, at a size (height) that varied little among source populations. The transition to female reproduction was slower, showed higher levels of variability and was negatively correlated with vegetative growth traits. Several female reproductive traits were correlated with a gradient of growth conditions, even after accounting for neutral genetic structure, with populations from more unfavourable sites tending to commence female reproduction at a lower individual size. CONCLUSIONS: The study represents the first report of genetic variability among populations for differences in the threshold size for first reproduction between male and female sexual functions in a tree species. The relatively uniform size at which individuals begin reproducing through their male function probably represents the fact that pollen dispersal is also relatively invariant among sites. However, the genetic variability in the timing of female reproduction probably reflects environment-dependent costs of cone production. The results also suggest that early sex allocation in this species might evolve under constraints that do not apply to other conifers.

Evolución de la agregación y separación de sexos: ¿Qué hemos aprendido de las poblaciones ibéricas de Mercurialis annua?

Most plant species are hermaphrodites, with both male and female functions performed by the same individuals. However, separate sexes (dioecy) have evolved on numerous independent occasions, probably either in response to selection for inbreeding avoidance, or because it pays individuals to specialize in one gender or the other. Although the evolution of dioecy from hermaphroditism tends to be thought of as a one-way path, dioecy has broken down to yield hermaphroditic populations on several occasions. One such case is found in the mainly dioecious genus Mercurialis (Euphorbiaceae). In the species complex M. annua, diploids are dioecious, but polyploid populations are variously monoecious or androdioecious (where males co-exist with functional hermaphrodites). This species complex offers rich material for addressing questions concerning the evolution and ecology of combined versus separate sexes, the evolution of secondary sexual dimorphism, which likely contributes to the stability of dioecy in the genus, and the evolution and genetics of sex determination and sex chromosomes. The species also offers itself as a valuable teaching tool for addressing topics ranging from sex-ratio selection to inter-sexual competition.

Heritability and quantitative genetic divergence of serotiny, a fire-persistence plant trait.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Although it is well known that fire acts as a selective pressure shaping plant phenotypes, there are no quantitative estimates of the heritability of any trait related to plant persistence under recurrent fires, such as serotiny. In this study, the heritability of serotiny in Pinus halepensis is calculated, and an evaluation is made as to whether fire has left a selection signature on the level of serotiny among populations by comparing the genetic divergence of serotiny with the expected divergence of neutral molecular markers (QST-FST comparison). METHODS: A common garden of P. halepensis was used, located in inland Spain and composed of 145 open-pollinated families from 29 provenances covering the entire natural range of P. halepensis in the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Narrow-sense heritability (h(2)) and quantitative genetic differentiation among populations for serotiny (QST) were estimated by means of an 'animal model' fitted by Bayesian inference. In order to determine whether genetic differentiation for serotiny is the result of differential natural selection, QST estimates for serotiny were compared with FST estimates obtained from allozyme data. Finally, a test was made of whether levels of serotiny in the different provenances were related to different fire regimes, using summer rainfall as a proxy for fire regime in each provenance. KEY RESULTS: Serotiny showed a significant narrow-sense heritability (h(2)) of 0·20 (credible interval 0·09-0·40). Quantitative genetic differentiation among provenances for serotiny (QST = 0·44) was significantly higher than expected under a neutral process (FST = 0·12), suggesting adaptive differentiation. A significant negative relationship was found between the serotiny level of trees in the common garden and summer rainfall of their provenance sites. CONCLUSIONS: Serotiny is a heritable trait in P. halepensis, and selection acts on it, giving rise to contrasting serotiny levels among populations depending on the fire regime, and supporting the role of fire in generating genetic divergence for adaptive traits.

Costs of female reproduction in a conifer tree: a whole-tree level assessment

1. Costs of reproduction lie at the core of basic ecological and evolutionary theories, and their existence is commonly invoked to explain adaptive processes. Despite their sheer importance, empirical evidence for the existence and quantification of costs of reproduction in tree species comes mostly from correlational studies, while more comprehensive approaches remain missing. Manipulative experiments are a preferred approach to study cost of reproduction, as they allow controlling for otherwise inherent confounding factors like size or genetic background. 2. Here, we conducted a manipulative experiment in a Pinus halepensis common garden, removing developing cones from a group of trees and comparing growth and reproduction after treatment with a control group. We also estimated phenotypic and genetic correlations between reproductive and vegetative traits. 3. Manipulated trees grew slightly more than control trees just after treatment, with just a transient, marginally non-significant difference. By contrast, larger differences were observed for the number of female cones initiated 1 year after treatment, with an increase of 70% more cones in the manipulated group. Phenotypic and genetic correlations showed that smaller trees invested a higher proportion of their resources in reproduction, compared with larger trees, which could be interpreted as an indirect evidence for costs of reproduction. 4. Synthesis. This research showed a high impact of current reproduction on reproductive potential, even when not significant on vegetative growth. This has strong implications for how we understand adaptive strategies in forest trees and should encourage further interest on their still poorly known reproductive life-history traits.

Correlated genetic effects on reproduction define a domestication syndrome in a forest tree.

Compared to natural selection, domestication implies a dramatic change in traits linked to fitness. A number of traits conferring fitness in the wild might be detrimental under domestication, and domesticated species typically differ from their ancestors in a set of traits known as the domestication syndrome. Specifically, trade-offs between growth and reproduction are well established across the tree of life. According to allocation theory, selection for growth rate is expected to indirectly alter life-history reproductive traits, diverting resources from reproduction to growth. Here we tested this hypothesis by examining the genetic change and correlated responses of reproductive traits as a result of selection for timber yield in the tree Pinus pinaster. Phenotypic selection was carried out in a natural population, and progenies from selected trees were compared with those of control trees in a common garden experiment. According to expectations, we detected a genetic change in important life-history traits due to selection. Specifically, threshold sizes for reproduction were much higher and reproductive investment relative to size significantly lower in the selected progenies just after a single artificial selection event. Our study helps to define the domestication syndrome in exploited forest trees and shows that changes affecting developmental pathways are relevant in domestication processes of long-lived plants.

Local effects drive heterozygosity-fitness correlations in an outcrossing long-lived tree.

Heterozygosity-fitness correlations (HFCs) have been used to understand the complex interactions between inbreeding, genetic diversity and evolution. Although frequently reported for decades, evidence for HFCs was often based on underpowered studies or inappropriate methods, and hence their underlying mechanisms are still under debate. Here, we used 6100 genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to test for general and local effect HFCs in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.), an iconic Mediterranean forest tree. Survival was used as a fitness proxy, and HFCs were assessed at a four-site common garden under contrasting environmental conditions (total of 16 288 trees). We found no significant correlations between genome-wide heterozygosity and fitness at any location, despite variation in inbreeding explaining a substantial proportion of the total variance for survival. However, four SNPs (including two non-synonymous mutations) were involved in significant associations with survival, in particular in the common gardens with higher environmental stress, as shown by a novel heterozygosity-fitness association test at the species-wide level. Fitness effects of SNPs involved in significant HFCs were stable across maritime pine gene pools naturally growing in distinct environments. These results led us to dismiss the general effect hypothesis and suggested a significant role of heterozygosity in specific candidate genes for increasing fitness in maritime pine. Our study highlights the importance of considering the species evolutionary and demographic history and different spatial scales and testing environments when assessing and interpreting HFCs.