Propriétés anesthésiques et analgésiques de l’eugénol chez la grenouille (Xenopus laevis), le poisson (Oncorhynchus mykiss) et le rat (Rattus norvegicus)

L'eugénol (2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) phénol), produit dérivé du clou de girofle (Eugenia aromatica), fut tout d’abord utilisé en application topique à des fins d’analgésie dentaire. Il produit également une anesthésie chirurgicale lorsque administré en immersion chez les poissons. L’eugénol agit sur les récepteurs vanilloïdes, sensibles à la chaleur, aux protons et à certaines molécules lipidiques. Ces récepteurs jouent un rôle important dans le mécanisme de l’inflammation et de l’hyperalgésie. L’eugénol pourrait également produire ses effets par antagonisme des récepteurs glutamaergiques (NMDA) et par son activation des récepteurs GABAergiques. Considérant que l’eugénol produit des effets analgésiques et anesthésiques, des études de pharmacocinétique et de pharmacodynamie furent réalisées chez la grenouille (Xenopus laevis), le poisson (Oncorhynchus mykiss) et le rat (Rattus norvegicus). Les résultats démontrent que l’eugénol administré par immersion à une dose efficace permet d’atteindre une anesthésie chirurgicale chez les grenouilles (350 mg/L) et les poissons (75 mg/L). Suite à des analyses plasmatiques par LC/MS/MS, la pharmacocinétique des grenouilles, des poissons et des rats montre que la drogue est éliminée et qu’il pourrait y avoir une recirculation entérohépathique plus importante chez la grenouille et le rat. La longue demi-vie chez le rat suggère aussi une accumulation dans les tissus après des administrations répétées. Suite à l’administration intraveineuse d’une dose de 20 mg/kg chez le rat, l’eugénol induit une anesthésie chirurgicale pour une très courte période de temps variant autour de 167 s. Les résultats de sensibilité thermique confirment l’efficacité de l’eugénol pour réduire l’hyperalgésie induite chez des rats neuropathiques. L’effet pharmacologique de l’eugénol a démontré une augmentation progressive constante de l’analgésie sur une période de cinq jours de traitements journaliers. En conclusion, l’eugénol possède des propriétés analgésiques et anesthésiques chez la grenouille africaine à griffes (Xenopus laevis), le poisson (Oncorhynchus mykiss) et le rat (Rattus norvegicus).

Introdução da truta arco-íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) e suas conseqüências para a comunidade aquática dos rios de altitude do sul do Brasil

A introdução de espécies exóticas é uma prática que acompanha a história da humanidade, sendo as espécies introduzidas a base da nutrição e economia em vários países. Porém, esse processo contínuo tem levado a uma homogeneização da flora e fauna global. Os ecossistemas aquáticos, que têm recebido menor atenção que os terrestres, têm sofrido perda de diversidade, hibridação, introdução de patógenos, degradação do habitat além da necessidade e alto custo de controle das espécies introduzidas. O desenvolvimento da aqüicultura tem acelerado a introdução de peixes exóticos, que são a base dessa produção em países como o Brasil. Além desta, entre as razões para a introdução citam-se o esporte, a manipulação ecológica com controle de organismos indesejáveis, o melhoramento dos estoques, a ornamentação ou ainda introduções acidentais. No Rio Grande do Sul, nos rios dos Campos de Cima da Serra estão ocorrendo introduções da espécie exótica truta arco- íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) desde meados da década de 90 como forma de estímulo ao turismo rural. O objetivo dessa prática é a pesca esportiva, que atrai turistas de várias regiões. Porém, os rios da região possuem várias espécies de peixes endêmicas e as conseqüências dessa prática sobre a biota aquática são desconhecidas. O objetivo do presente trabalho é avaliar o efeito da introdução da truta arco-íris sobre o ecossistema de rios de baixa ordem no município de São José dos Ausentes – RS, Brasil. Para tanto foi descrita a biologia da truta arco- íris no novo ambiente, verificando sua alimentação, movimentação, presença e viabilidade da reprodução. A ictiofauna autóctone dos rios com ausência e presença de trutas foi comparada, bem como o efeito da predação sobre a macrofauna bentônica. A ictiofauna foi amostrada com o uso da pesca elétrica, sendo o conteúdo estomacal das trutas avaliado sazonalmente. Três trutas foram marcadas e acompanhadas por ii biotelemetria para determinação da sua área de vida. Um experimento com ninhos artificiais foi conduzido para verificação da sobrevivência de ovos de trutas nas condições dos rios de São José dos Ausentes. O experimento de exclusão de peixes foi feito a fim de avaliar o efeito da predação sobre a macrofauna bentônica, comparando a macrofauna em rios com e sem trutas. Os resultados indicaram que a truta arco- íris tem como alimento principal os invertebrados bentônicos, porém as maiores classes de tamanho incluem peixes em seus alimentos principais. Logo após sua introdução a movimentação é restrita, porém alguns exemplares foram capturados em um rio onde não foi feita introdução dessa espécie. Apesar de baixa, a sobrevivência dos adultos ocorre, assim como a reprodução. A sobrevivência dos ovos também é baixa, porém, uma pós-larva foi encontrada. A ictiofauna autóctone é diferenciada nos rios com presença de truta, apresentando menor riqueza e diversidade e uma tendência a diminuição da biomassa. A macrofauna bentônica também é diferenciada, apesar de não ser possível atribuir essa diferença somente à presença das trutas.

Landfill Leachate Toxicity to Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout) at the Merrick Landfill

At the Merrick Landfill, located outside of North Bay (Ontario, CA), an investigation into the potential for an environmental impact to the Little Sturgeon River as a result of landfill leachate discharge was undertaken using toxicity testing using 96 hour acute lethality on Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout). Landfill leachate may present a risk to receiving environments as it is comprised of an array of chemicals including organics, ammonia, and metals. Testing was conducted in three phases, firstly testing was completed on site throughout an existing natural attenuation zone where the presence of several groundwater seeps down gradient of the site had been identified to determine the effectiveness of the existing leachate control features at reducing the environmental risks. These tests indicated that the existing capture strategies were largely effective at reducing toxicity risks to the receiving environment. Testing was also completed on two pilot-scale hybrid-passive treatment systems to determine their effectiveness for leachate treatment. Summer performance of a constructed gravel wetland system was also shown to be effective at reducing the toxicity of the landfill leachate at the site. Lastly in order to support evaluation of leachate treatment requirements, a toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) was performed to determine the principle cause of toxicity within the leachate. Based on water chemistry analyses of samples collected at various locations at the site, the TIE identified ammonia toxicity as the primary source of toxicity in the leachate, with a secondary focus on metal toxicity.

Landfill Leachate Toxicity to Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout) at the Merrick Landfill

At the Merrick Landfill, located outside of North Bay (Ontario, CA), an investigation into the potential for an environmental impact to the Little Sturgeon River as a result of landfill leachate discharge was undertaken using toxicity testing using 96 hour acute lethality on Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout). Landfill leachate may present a risk to receiving environments as it is comprised of an array of chemicals including organics, ammonia, and metals. Testing was conducted in three phases, firstly testing was completed on site throughout an existing natural attenuation zone where the presence of several groundwater seeps down gradient of the site had been identified to determine the effectiveness of the existing leachate control features at reducing the environmental risks. These tests indicated that the existing capture strategies were largely effective at reducing toxicity risks to the receiving environment. Testing was also completed on two pilot-scale hybrid-passive treatment systems to determine their effectiveness for leachate treatment. Summer performance of a constructed gravel wetland system was also shown to be effective at reducing the toxicity of the landfill leachate at the site. Lastly in order to support evaluation of leachate treatment requirements, a toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) was performed to determine the principle cause of toxicity within the leachate. Based on water chemistry analyses of samples collected at various locations at the site, the TIE identified ammonia toxicity as the primary source of toxicity in the leachate, with a secondary focus on metal toxicity.

The use of animal processed proteins and fat on the growth performance of rainbow trout (Onchorynchus mykiss)

Hoje em dia a industria da aquacultura enfrenta novos desafios para manter a sustentabilidade econômica de uma forma responsável para o meio ambiente e consumidores. Um dos maiores desafios que apresenta hoje em dia, é o aumento do preço da farinha e óleo de peixe que são os constituintes maioritários da alimentação para os peixes de aquacultura. As PAP’s e gorduras de animais terrestres parecem ser uma alternativa viável, sustentável e menos problemática do que as farinhas e óleos vegetais para substituir a farinha e óleo de peixe. Por esta razão neste trabalho nos procuramos substituir uma pequena parte da farinha e óleo de peixe por alguns produtos provenientes de animais terrestres. Este estudo foi um teste de crescimento para a truta arco-íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Inicialmente foram formuladas 4 dietas (CTRL, PAP2, PAP3 and PAP4). Exceptuando o dieta controlo (CTRL) que foi uma dieta comercial, os outros alimentos foram desenhados para substituir a farinha de peixe e outras farinhas vegetais por PAP’s (proteína animal processada) como hidrolisado de farinha de penas, farinha de sangue de suíno e gordura animal processadas como a gordura de aves. O teste foi feito ao longo de 112 dias com checkpoints no dia (30, 60 e 112), onde os peixes eram pesados com excepção do dia 112 onde foram também amostrados para composição corporal e índice hepatossomático. O peso inicial médio dos peixes dos grupos foi 219,7g e o peso médio final foi 488,7g. Não existiram alterações comportamentais nem preferência por nenhuma ração testada e não foram verificadas diferenças estatisticamente significativas (P>0,05) no consumo de ração, crescimento e outros parâmetros de crescimento com a exceção da taxa de eficiência proteica. Foram também verificadas diferenças estatísticas significativas para alguns aspectos da composição corporal, ganhos e retenções. Os resultados demonstram que as substituições feitas não tiveram impacto no crescimentos da truta arco íris mas sim na composição corporal. Apesar disso os resultados não sugerem nenhum problema importante relacionado com o uso de PAP’s na formulação de ração para peixes.

Guía para la incubación y alevinaje de trucha arco iris Oncorhynchus mykiss

Considerando este potencial y asociándolo con el uso exitoso de la trucha arco iris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) en actividades acuícolas en las zonas altoandinas del Perú, el Imarpe, dentro del Presupuesto por Resultados 2013 y 2014, a través de la meta Asistencia Técnica en Zonas Altoandinas y Amazónicas - Región Ayacucho, ha ejecutado el proyecto “Implementación de módulos prefabricados para la incubación de ovas importadas y obtención de alevinos de trucha arco iris”. Se inició las actividades con una evaluación e identificación de las zonas, cuyas características topográficas y de abastecimiento de agua fueron ideales para la incubación de ovas embrionadas de trucha arco iris. En tal sentido, las zonas identificadas fueron los Distrito de Socos, Chungui y Huanta.

Brook Trout Removal as a Conservation Tool to Restore Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout

Nonnative brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis are abundant in Pine Creek and its main tributary, Bogard Spring Creek, California. These creeks historically provided the most spawning and rearing habitat for endemic Eagle Lake rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss aquilarum. Three-pass electrofishing removal was conducted in 2007–2009 over the entire 2.8-km length of Bogard Spring Creek to determine whether brook trout removal was a feasible restoration tool and to document the life history characteristics of brook trout in a California meadow stream. After the first 2 years of removal, brook trout density and biomass were severely reduced from 15,803 to 1,192 fish/ha and from 277 to 31 kg/ha, respectively. Average removal efficiency was 92–97%, and most of the remaining fish were removed in the third year. The lack of a decrease in age-0 brook trout abundance between 2007 and 2008 after the removal of more than 4,000 adults in 2007 suggests compensatory reproduction of mature fish that survived and higher survival of age-0 fish. However, recruitment was greatly reduced after 2 years of removal and is likely to be even more depressed after the third year of removal assuming that immigration of fish from outside the creek continues to be minimal. Brook trout condition, growth, and fecundity indicated a stunted population at the start of the study, but all three features increased significantly every year, demonstrating compensatory effects. Although highly labor intensive, the use of electrofishing to eradicate brook trout may be feasible in Bogard Spring Creek and similar small streams if removal and monitoring are continued annually and if other control measures (e.g., construction of barriers) are implemented. Our evidence shows that if brook trout control measures continue and if only Eagle Lake rainbow trout are allowed access to the creek, then a self-sustaining population ofEagle Lake rainbow trout can become reestablished

Expressão da enzima indoleamina-2,3-dioxigenase em truta arco-íris (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Resumo: A indoleamina 2,3-dioxigenase (IDO) é uma enzima que cataboliza o aminoácido triptofano, levando à inibição da proliferação de linfócitos T, seja pela exaustão desse aminoácido no ambiente, ou pela indução via catabólitos induzindo-os a apoptose. Em mamíferos, esta enzima atua em diversas condições do organismo como a gestação, infecções, inflamações crônicas, transplantes e tumores, atuando na regulação imunológica. Estudos recentes identificaram a presença de moléculas homólogas a IDO em espécies filogeneticamente inferiores, cuja função parece estar restrita ao metabolismo do triptofano como fonte de energia. Este estudo teve por objetivo averiguar a expressão da IDO em células sanguíneas e órgãos hematopoiéticos de truta arco-íris pela imuno-histoquímica, buscando evidências de que a mesma poderia, nesta espécie, estar relacionada ao sistema imune. A expressão de IDO foi observada nos órgãos hematopoiéticos estudados incluindo o rim cefálico que apresentou marcação em células interrenais e leucócitos; baço, na qual a marcação restringiu à alguns leucócitos; no fígado a marcação ficou limitada à apenas algumas células dentro dos vasos sanguíneos e nas extensões sanguíneas pode-se visualizar a marcação de alguns leucócitos como os monócitos, linfócitos e neutrófilos. A predominância da marcação da IDO nesses tecidos pode constituir uma evidência de que a IDO identificada na O. mykiss esteja relacionada ao sistema imunológico nessa espécie.

Efecto del pH y de la adición de fosfatos de sodio sobre las propiedades de gelificación y emulsión de surimi de trucha arco-iris (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Para la elaboración de surimi se han empleado distintas técnicas, sin embargo, es indispensable mantener la funcionalidad de las proteínas musculares durante su extracción, ya que son afectadas principalmente por el pH. La incorporación de fosfatos en productos cárnicos afecta el pH, teniendo como consecuencia una mejora en la capacidad de retención de agua de las proteínas musculares, alterando la funcionalidad de estos productos. Se utilizó la metodología de superficie de respuesta para determinar el efecto de cinco niveles de pH y cinco concentraciones de una mezcla de fosfatos de sodio comercial sobre la funcionalidad de surimi de trucha arco-iris, evaluada por su capacidad de emulsión y trabajo de emulsión, fuerza de gel y trabajo de penetración de geles de surimi. Los resultados obtenidos indican que el incremento en la concentración de fosfatos de sodio mejoró la funcionalidad del surimi y a pH alcalino las propiedades de emulsión mejoraron, pero se afectaron negativamente las propiedades de gelificación.

Efectos de pigmentación en el músculo de trucha arcoiris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) mediante el uso de extractos pigmentantes de flor de cempasúchil (Tagetes erecta) y paprika (Capsicum annuum) incorporados en el alimento balanceado.

Tesis (Maestría en Ciencias con Especialidad en Ecología Acuática y Pesca) UANL

Bionomía y ecología poblacional de la trucha arcoiris, Oncorhynchus mykiss neisoni (Evermann), de la Sierra San Pedro Mártir, Baja California, México

Tesis (Doctor en Ciencias con Especialidad en Ecología Acúatica y Pesca) U.A.N.L.

Malacosporean-like spores in urine of rainbow trout react with antibody and DNA probes to Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae

Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae is the myxozoan parasite causing proliferative kidney disease (PKD) of salmonid fishes in Europe and North America. The complete life cycle of the parasite remains unknown despite recent discoveries that the stages infectious for fish develop in freshwater bryozoans. During the course of examinations of the urine of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) with or recovering from PKD we identified spores with features similar to those of T. bryosalmonae found in the bryozoan host. Spores found in the urine were subspherical, with a width of 16 mum and height of 14 mum, and possessed two soft valves surrounding two spherical polar capsules (2 mum in diameter) and a single sporoplasm. The absence of hardened valves is a distinguishing characteristic of the newly established class Malacosporea that includes T. bryosalmonae as found in the bryozoan host. The parasite in the urine of rainbow trout possessed only two polar capsules and two valve cells compared to the four polar capsules and four valves observed in the spherical spores of 19 mum in diameter from T. bryosalmonae from the bryozoan host. Despite morphological differences, a relationship between the spores in the urine of rainbow trout and T. bryosalmonae was demonstrated by binding of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies and DNA probes specific to T. bryosalmonae.

The effect of elevated blood cortisol levels on the extinction of a conditioned stress response in rainbow trout

Following previously published observations that a conditioned response (CR) was lost more quickly by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exhibiting a high responsiveness to stressors than by low responding individuals this study was designed to investigate the effects of exogenous cortisol on the retention of a CR in unselected rainbow trout. Fish held in isolation were conditioned over a 10-day period by pairing an innocuous signal (conditioned stimulus, CS: a water jet played on the surface of the tank water) with a mild stressor (unconditioned stimulus, US: 30 min of confinement). This resulted in a brief elevation of plasma cortisol levels (the CR) when the fish was exposed to the CS only. The effect of exogenous cortisol on the retention of the CR was evaluated by comparing the performance of fish that received cortisol-containing slow-release intraperitoneal implants, with fish receiving vehicle-only implants. Retention of the CR was assessed at intervals up to 35 days after conditioning ceased. The CR was considered to be evident when 30 min following presentation of the CS, mean plasma cortisol levels were significantly higher in conditioned than untrained fish. on day 1 both cortisol-implanted and vehicle-implanted conditioned fish exhibited a CR. However, from day 5 onwards the CR was observed only in the vehicle-implanted and conditioned group. This finding indicates that administration of cortisol accelerated the extinction of the CR in the cortisol-implanted fish, suggesting that elevated plasma cortisol levels can impair memory processes in rainbow trout. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Chronic social stress in rainbow trout: Does it promote physiological habituation?

The effect of chronic social stress on growth, energetic substrates and hormones was tested in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. After a 14-day isolation period, the fish were paired for 8 days. In order to expose fish to chronic intermittent social contact during pairing, they were maintained in direct contact with each other during the first day. After that, a black plastic screen partition was introduced in each tank, preventing direct contact between animals. Every day the partition was removed for 30 min, allowing physical interaction between fish. At the end of pairing period, they were isolated again for 13 days. Fish were weighed and blood was sampled frequently during the experiment. Plasma levels of cortisol, growth hormone, glucose, total protein and free amino acids were quantified. Both dominants and subordinates had specific growth rate decreased during the pairing period, but only subordinates increased when the stressor was abolished (dominants: 0.32 +/- 0.21 and 0.24 +/- 0.41, subordinates: -0.77 +/- 0.29 and 0.37 +/- 0.31, respectively). Dominants showed a higher cortisol level one week after pairing condition had been abolished than subordinates (dominants: 56.76 +/- 13.26, subordinates: 31.89 +/- 13.36). We conclude that chronic condition of intermittent social stress represents a stressful condition for animals of both hierarchical ranks and a treatment of one daily short direct contact between conspecifics does not promote habituation in fish, as mentioned for other stressors. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Extinction of a conditioned response in rainbow trout selected for high or low responsiveness to stress

Two lines of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) that exhibit divergent endocrine responsiveness to stressors also display disparate behavioral traits. To investigate whether the high-responding (HR) and low-responding (LR) fish also differ in cognitive function, the rate of extinction of a conditioned response was compared between the two lines. Groups of HR and LR fish were exposed to a paired conditioned stimulus (CS- water off) and unconditioned stimulus (US; confinement stressor). After exposure to 18 CS-US pairings, at least 70% of individuals of both lines acquired a conditioned response (CR) manifested as an elevation of blood cortisol levels on presentation of the CS only. Post-conditioning, the fish were tested by presentation of the CS at weekly intervals, for 4 weeks, with no further reinforcement, and the extinction of the CR in the two lines was compared. The decline in mean plasma cortisol levels after exposure to the CS over successive tests suggested that the CR was retained for a shorter period among the HR (<14 days) than LR fish (<21 days). The frequency of individuals within each line whose plasma cortisol levels indicated a stress response when exposed to the CS was significantly greater among the LR than HR fish at 14 and 21 days with no HR fish falling into this category at 21 days. At 28 days post-conditioning, there were no HR fish and only three LR fish were categorized as stressed. These results suggest that there are differences in cognitive function between the two lines. Possible mechanisms underlying these differences are discussed. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.