Effect of the anti-neoplastic drug doxorubicin on XPD-mutated DNA repair-deficient human cells

Doxorubicin (DOX), a member of the anthracycline group, is a widely used drug in cancer therapy. The mechanisms of DOX action include topoisomerase II-poisoning, free radical release, DNA adducts and interstrand cross-link (ICL) formation. Nucleotide excision repair(NER) is involved in the removal of helix-distorting lesions and chemical adducts, however, little is known about the response of NER-deficient cell lines to anti-tumoral drugs like DOX. Wild type and XPD-mutated cells, harbouring mutations in different regions of this gene and leading to XP-D, XP/CS or TTD diseases, were treated with this drug and analyzed for cell cycle arrest and DNA damage by comet assay. The formation of DSBs was also investigated by determination of gamma H2AX foci. Our results indicate that all three NER-deficient cell lines tested are more sensitive to DOX treatment, when compared to wild type cells or XP cells complemented by the wild type XPD cDNA, suggesting that NER is involved in the removal of DOX-induced lesions. The cell cycle analysis showed the characteristic G2 arrest in repair-proficient MRC5 cell line after DOX treatment, whereas the repair-deficient cell lines presented significant increase in sub-G1 fraction. The NER-deficient cell lines do not show different patterns of DNA damage formation as assayed by comet assay and phosphorylated H2AX foci formation. Knock-down of topoisomerase II alpha with siRNA leads to increased survival in both MRC5 and XP cells, however, XP cell line still remained significantly more sensitive to the treatment by DOX. Our study suggests that the enhanced sensitivity is due to DOX-induced DNA damage that is subject to NER, as we observed decreased unscheduled DNA synthesis in XP-deficient cells upon DOX treatment. Furthermore, the complementation of the XPD-function abolished the observed sensitivity at lower DOX concentrations, suggesting that the XPD helicase activity is involved in the repair of DOX-induced lesions. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Efeitos citotóxicos do teniposide, um derivado semi-sintético das epipodofilotoxinas, sobre linhagens celulares de carcinoma renal humano

O câncer renal corresponde a aproximadamente 3% dos tumores malignos do adulto, sendo a terceira malignidade urológica mais comum. Os tratamentos sistêmicos disponíveis para pacientes portadores de carcinoma renal avançado são, via de regra, pouco eficazes e sem um impacto definido na sobrevida. Portanto, torna-se imperioso que novos agentes e/ou estratégias terapêuticas para esta enfermidade sejam desenvolvidas. O derivado das epipodolofilotoxinas, etoposide, tem sido utilizado com sucesso no tratamento de vários tipos de tumores sólidos e hematológicos. Este agente exerce a sua ação antitumoral através da inibição da enzima nuclear topoisomerase II. Estudos recentes demonstraram que o efeito citotóxico in vitro deste agente é bem mais pronunciado quando as linhagens tumorais são expostas à droga por um tempo mais prolongado. Isto vem sendo confirmado em estudos clínicos, nos quais foi documentado um aumento significativo no percentual de respostas tumorais objetivas em pacientes com câncer avançado tratados com etoposide em doses repetidas diárias de forma continuada, comparativamente a pacientes que receberam pulsos de doses altas da droga a intervalos mais longos. Infelizmente, estudos iniciais com etoposide não revelaram uma atividade antitumoral significativa em pacientes com câncer renal avançado. Por esta razão, os estudos preliminares explorando o potencial terapêutico de seu análogo teniposide nesta doença também não receberam a devida atenção na literatura. Entretanto, este análogo possui potenciais vantagens terapêuticas em relação ao etoposide, uma vez que apresenta um tempo de retenção intracelular mais prolongado em linhagens de tumores sólidos in vitro. Estas observações nos estimularam a reconsiderar o estudo do potencial citotóxico do teniposide em modelos experimentais de câncer renal avançado. Nesta dissertação, foram estudados vários protocolos de administração de teniposide em linhagens de câncer renal humano, uma vez que esta neoplasia carece de drogas ativas disponíveis no armamentário terapêutico. Foram utilizadas as linhagens celulares RXF-393, A-498 e TK-10, as quais foram incubadas com teniposide em concentrações pré-determinadas e tempos de incubação variáveis. Além disto, foram feitos experimentos em que protocolos de administração de teniposide como agente único foram comparados a protocolos em que o mesmo foi combinado com agentes que bloqueiam a ação da glicoproteína P, responsável pelo efluxo ativo da droga do interior da célula tumoral. Além disso, foram também estudados protocolos incluindo a associação de teniposide com agentes que interferem com a síntese do DNA. Para os estudos de avaliação de citotoxicidade dos agentes quimioterápicos, os mesmos foram pré-incubados por 24 h na ausência ou presença do inibidor da DNA polimerase α afidicolina glicinada (0,2 µM) ou do inibidor da ribonucleotídeo redutase hidroxiuréia (200 µM) e após incubados por diferentes tempos de exposição com diluições seriadas de teniposide. Os efeitos citotóxicos foram avaliados através do método colorimétrico com sulforodamina B (SRB). Os protocolos de exposição prolongada das células ao teniposide mostraram um aumento significativo na sua citotoxicidade nas linhagens RXF-393, A-498 e TK-10, sugerindo que a citotoxicidade do teniposide é dependente de tempo de administração. Neste sentido, uma maior taxa de dano no DNA foi observada nas células expostas ao teniposide por tempos de administração mais prolongados. Curiosamente, os diferentes tempos de exposição ao teniposide não influenciaram de forma clara na formação de complexos DNA-topoisomerase II, nem nas medidas da atividade desta enzima. O uso concomitante de agentes moduladores da glicoproteína P como o verapamil, a ciclosporina A e o tamoxifeno não produziu potencialização do efeito antiproliferativo do teniposide. Por sua vez, os tratamentos com agentes que interferem na síntese de DNA, como a afidicolina glicinada ou a hidroxiuréia, potencializaram a citotoxicidade do teniposide em todas as linhagens estudadas, seguindo as características intrínsecas de cada linhagem. Em conclusão, os resultados apresentados nesta dissertação sugerem que o teniposide apresenta um maior efeito citotóxico em protocolos de administração prolongada em combinação com agentes inibidores da síntese de DNA. Frente a estes resultados iniciais, o teniposide será testado nos protocolos de administração acima mencionados em um painel contendo um maior número de linhagens tumorais in vitro. Uma vez confirmadas as observações acima descritas, serão iniciados estudos em modelos tumorais in vivo. Estes estudos servirão de base nas decisões quanto à reavaliação clínica do teniposide em ensaios de fase I em pacientes com neoplasias avançadas refratárias.

Efeito do hexazinone isolado e em mistura na eficiência fotossintética de Panicum maximum

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar a velocidade e intensidade de ação do hexazinone isolado e em mistura com outros inibidores do fotossistema II, através da eficiência fotossintética de Panicum maximum em pós-emergência. O ensaio foi constituído de seis tratamentos: hexazinone (250 g ha-1), tebuthiuron (1,0 kg ha-1), hexazinone + tebuthiuron (125 g ha-1 + 0,5 kg ha-1), diuron (2.400 g ha-1), hexazinone + diuron (125 + 1.200 g ha-1), metribuzin (1.440 g ha-1), hexazinone + metribuzin (125 + 720 g ha-1) e uma testemunha. O experimento foi instalado em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. Após a aplicação dos tratamentos, as plantas foram transportadas para casa de vegetação sob condições controladas de temperatura e umidade, onde ficaram durante o período experimental, sendo realizadas as seguintes avaliações: taxa de transporte de elétrons e análise visual de intoxicação. A avaliação com o fluorômetro foi realizada nos intervalos de 1, 2, 6, 24, 48, 72, 120 e 168 horas após a aplicação, e as avaliações visuais, aos três e sete dias após a aplicação. Os resultados demonstraram diferença nos tratamentos, enfatizando a aplicação do diuron, que reduziu lentamente o transporte de elétrons comparado com os outros herbicidas e, em mistura com hexazinone, apresentou efeito sinérgico. Verificou-se com o uso do fluorômetro a intoxicação antecipada em plantas de P. maximum após a aplicação de herbicidas inibidores do fotossistema II de forma isolada e em mistura.

Late morfofunctional alterations of the Sertoli cell caused by doxorubicin administered to prepubertal rats

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Screening of Brazilian plants for antimicrobial and dnadamaging activities: I. Atlantic rain forest . Ecological station juréia-itatins

(Triagem de plantas nativas do Brasil para atividades antimicrobiana e de Danos no DNA I. Mata Atlântica . Estação Ecológica Juréia-Itatins). Oitenta e oito espécies nativas do estado de São Paulo foram coletadas numa região de Mata Atlântica e ensaiadas quanto a sua atividade antimicrobiana e capacidade de causar danos no DNA. Dos 114 extratos submetidos aos ensaios para atividade antibacteriana, apenas os extratos de folhas e galhos de Aspidosperma ramiflorum (Apocynaceae) apresentaram uma atividade fraca contra Escherichia coli. No ensaio antifúngico com Candida albicans, não foram observados extratos ativos. Por outro lado, no ensaio de bioautografia com Cladosporium sphaerospermum e C. cladosporioides 12% dos extratos apresentaram atividade. Contudo, nesse ensaio, somente o extrato dos ramos de Psychotria mapoureoides (Rubiaceae) inibiu fortemente o crescimento de ambas espécies do fungo. O ensaio para danos no DNA com cepas mutantes de Saccharomyces cerevisiae apresentou 17.5 % de extratos ativos. A maioria dos extratos ativos (55 %) apresentou resultados seletivos para danos dependentes da topoisomerase II como mecanismo de reparo do DNA e somente 20 % foram seletivos para o mecanismo da topoisomerase I.

Alterations of spermatogenesis in etoposide-treated rats: A stereological study

The etoposide is an anticancer drug that interacts with topoisomerase II. Thirty-day-old rats received intraperitonially 2mg/kg of etoposide for 30 consecutive days. Their testes were analyzed in the adult phase under light microscopy according to histomorphometric and stereological parameters. Random 3mum-thick-paraplast sections of testis were stained with periodic acid-Schiff reaction and Harris' hematoxylin method. Serum testosterone level and reproductive performance were also investigated. The results showed an accentuated decrease in the frequency of germinal lineage cell types and differentiated spermatogonia were the most affected cell types. Morphometric and stereological testicular parameters exhibited highly, significant reductions in adult etoposide-treated rats. Their reproductive performance diminished but their serum testosterone level was not significantly altered. The mortality frequency of the progenies was 100%.

Peptídeos derivados da toxina ParE: síntese, estrutura e estudos de inibição de DNA topoisomerases

Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia - IQ

Gene Expression Profile in Response to Doxorubicin-Rapamycin Combined Treatment of HER-2-Overexpressing Human Mammary Epithelial Cell Lines

HER-2-positive breast cancers frequently sustain elevated AKT/mTOR signaling, which has been associated with resistance to doxorubicin treatment. Here, we investigated whether rapamycin, an mTOR inhibitor, increased the sensitivity to doxorubicin therapy in two HER-2-overexpressing cell lines: C5.2, which was derived from the parental HB4a by transfection with HER-2 and SKBR3, which exhibits HER-2 amplification. The epithelial mammary cell line HB4a was also analyzed. The combined treatment using 20 nmol/L of rapamycin and 30 nmol/L of doxorubicin arrested HB4a and C5.2 cells in S to G(2)-M, whereas SKBR3 cells showed an increase in the G(0)-G(1) phase. Rapamycin increased the sensitivity to doxorubicin in HER-2-overexpressing cells by approximately 2-fold, suggesting that the combination displayed a more effective antiproliferative action. Gene expression profiling showed that these results might reflect alterations in genes involved in canonical pathways related to purine metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, protein ubiquitination, and mitochondrial dysfunction. A set of 122 genes modulated by the combined treatment and specifically related to HER-2 overexpression was determined by finding genes commonly regulated in both C5.2 and SKBR3 that were not affected in HB4a cells. Network analysis of this particular set showed a smaller subgroup of genes in which coexpression pattern in HB4a cells was disrupted in C5.2 and SKBR3. Altogether, our data showed a subset of genes that might be more robust than individual markers in predicting the response of HER-2-overexpressing breast cancers to doxorubicin and rapamycin combination. Mol Cancer Ther; 11(2); 464-74. (C) 2011 AACR.

Prognostication of Soft Tissue Sarcomas Based on Chromosome 17q Gene and Protein Status: Evaluation of TOP2A, HER-2/neu, and Survivin

Topoisomerase 2 alpha (), HER-2/ and are genes that lie on chromosome 17 and correlate with the prognosis and prediction of target-driven therapy against tumors. In a previous study, we showed that TOP2A transcripts levels were significantly higher in soft tissue sarcomas (STS) than in benign tumors and desmoid-type fibromatoses (FM). Because these genes have been insufficiently examined in STS, we aimed to identify alterations in TOP2A and HER-2 expression by fluorescent in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, as well as that of survivin, and correlate them with clinicopathologic findings to assess their prognostic value. Eighteen FM and 244 STS were included. Fluorescent in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were performed on a tissue microarray. TOP2A and survivin were more highly expressed in sarcomas than in FM. TOP2A was an independent predictor of an unfavorable prognosis; it was combined with formerly established prognostic factors (primarily histologic grade and tumor size at diagnosis) to create a prognostic index that evaluated overall survival. Gene amplification/polysomy (13%) did not correlate with protein overexpression. Survivin and HER-2 expression were not associated with patient outcomes. These findings might become valuable in the management of patients with STS and possibly in the prospective evaluation of responses to new target-driven therapies.

Design, Synthese und biologische Evaluierung von Pyrrolcarboxamiden mit Nucleobasen- oder tricyclischer Aromatenfunktion

Ausgehend von den Naturstoffen Netropsin und Distamycin A, antitumoraktiven Pyrrolcarboxamiden, die selektiv an AT-reiche Sequenzen in der kleinen Rinne (Minor-Groove) der DNA binden, sollten neue Nucleobasen- bzw. Interkalator-gekoppelte Derivate (letztere werden als „Combilexine“ bezeichnet) synthetisiert und biologisch evaluiert werden. Unter Zuhilfenahme quantenchemischer AM1-Rechnungen sollten Struktur-Wirkungs-Beziehungen abgeleitet werden. Als Grundgerüst diente die Mono- bzw. Bispyrrolcarboxamid-Einheit mit C-terminaler N,N-Dimethyl-1,3-diaminopropan-Seitenkette, die die ebenfalls basische Amidinstruktur der Leitsubstanzen imitieren sollte. Variationen erfolgten ausschließlich am N-terminalen Ende. Hierbei wurden zunächst Adenin-, Thymin- und Uracil-alkancarbonsäuren mit variabler Kettenlänge synthetisiert und über verschiedene Amidkupplungsverfahren an die Aminofunktion des Pyrrolcarboxamid-Grundgerüstes geknüpft. In Analogie hierzu folgte die Synthese von Combilexinen mit Acridon, (Nitro-)Naphthalimid und Iminostilben als Interkalatorkomponenten. Im 3. synthetischen Teil der Arbeit wurden Carbonsäure- und Sulfonylchloride des Interkalators Acridin und des Interkalators und Photosensibilisators Anthrachinon über die aliphatischen Linker ß-Alanin und -Aminobuttersäure an das Pyrrolcarboxamidgrundgerüst gebunden. Testungen von Verbindungen aller 3 Serien auf Zytotoxizität beim National Cancer Institute, USA, und DNA-Bindestudien und Topoisomerase-Hemmtests im Laboratory of Pharmacology, INSERM in Lille, Frankreich, schlossen sich an. Bei allen Verbindungen mit mindestens 3 Carboxamid-Funktionen zeigte sich gute bis ausgezeichnete DNA-Bindung; einige wiesen Topoisomerase II - Hemmung auf. Beide Parameter korrelierten allerdings nicht mit der Zytotoxizität, was vor allem an der mangelhaften Zellmembranpermeation einiger Verbindungen aufgrund zu geringer Lipophilie liegen dürfte. Quantenchemische Rechnungen ergaben ebenfalls wenige Gesetzmäßigkeiten. Ein elektronenarmer N-terminaler Rest (wie im Falle des hochpotenten Iminostilben-Derivates) scheint aber die Zytotoxizität einer Substanz ebenso wie zunehmende Linkerlänge zu begünstigen. Eine Ausnahme bilden hier die Anthrachinonderivate. Die drei zytotoxisch aktivsten Vertreter dieser Gruppe besitzen als Linker ß-Alanin, was eine aus der sonst bei Minor-Groove-Bindern üblichen Kurvature herausragende Konformation zur Folge hat. Diese ermöglicht vermutlich eine besonders gute Interaktion mit der DNA.

Generierung und Prozessierung oxidativer DNA-Schäden

Generierung und Prozessierung oxidativer DNA Schäden --- Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, adaptive Antworten der Zellen auf einen DNA Schädigung zu untersuchen. Hierzu wurden Experimente zur Reparatur oxidierter Basen (Substrate der Basen Exzisions Reparatur (BER)) oder von Pyrimidindimeren (Substrate der Nukleotid Exzisions Reparatur (NER)) nach einer Vorbehandlung mit DNA-schädigender Agenzien durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass sowohl eine Vorbehandlung mit einer alkylierenden als auch mit einer oxidierenden Substanz zu einer adaptiven Erhöhung des zellulären Glutathionspiegels führte, die 16 h nach der Schädigung ihr Maximum erreichte. Jedoch waren die 8-oxoG Glykosylaseaktivitäten über einen Zeitraum von 18 h konstant. Diese Effekte waren unabhängig davon, ob Maus Embryofibroblasten, primäre oder p53 profiziente menschliche Zellen verwendet wurden. Die BER war ebenfalls in keiner der verschiedenen Zelllinien signifikant verbessert. Die adaptive Antwort bezüglich der Glutathionspiegel war also nicht mit einer entsprechenden Veränderung bei der DNA-Reparatur verbunden. Folglich ist die Reparatur von oxidativen DNA-Schäden durch eine vorausgehende Schädigung nicht induzierbar. Der zweite Teil der Untersuchungen zu der Reparatur beschäftigte sich mit der NER. Hierzu wurde die Reaktivierung eines mit UVB-Strahlung geschädigten Plasmids untersucht. Als Wirtszellen fungierten primäre menschliche Fibroblasten und Keratinozyten, die entweder mit UVB vorbehandelt oder ungeschädigt waren. Auch für die NER konnte keine signifikante Beschleunigung der Reparatur von Pyrimidindimeren durch eine Vorbehandlung festgestellt werden. Die Reaktivierung erfolgte ferner unabhängig vom p53-Status der Zellen, wie Versuche mit p53-siRNA zeigten. Neben der Prozessierung war die Generierung oxidativer DNA Schäden Gegenstand der Arbeit. Die verwendete Substanz Tirapazamin (TPZ) ist ein für hypoxische Zellen selektives, neues Zytostatikum und befindet sich momentan in Phase 2/3 der klinischen Prüfung. Ziel war es die von TPZ verursachten DNA Modifikationen zu charakterisieren, sowie die Toxizität und Genotoxizität zu untersuchen. Da es Hinweise auf eine Aktivierung von TPZ über eine Oxidoreduktase (OR) gab, wurden die Experimente in Wildtyp und hOR überexprimierenden Zellen durchgeführt. Die Quantifizierung der verursachten DNA-Modifikationen zeigte, dass der von TPZ verursachte Schaden in Zellen mit hOR erhöht war. Das erhaltene Schadensprofil der durch TPZ verursachten DNA-Modifikationen war dem Schadensprofil von durch Gamma-Strahlung intrazellulär verursachten Hydroxylradikalen sehr ähnlich. Da es nach der Aktivierung von TPZ durch eine OR zu einer Abspaltung von Hydroxylradikalen kommt, bestätigte dies den vermuteten Mechanismus. Weitere Untersuchungen mit t-Butanol, einem Hydroxylradikal Fänger, ergaben eine verminderte DNA-Schädigung, was ebenfalls für eine DNA-Schädigung durch Hydroxylradikale spricht. Untersuchungen zur Mutagenität zeigten das die Mutationsrate in Zellen mit hOR um das 4 fache erhöht ist. Erstaunlich war jedoch, dass der im gleichen Ausmaß von Gamma-Strahlung verursachte DNA-Schaden für die beobachtete Toxizität dieser verantwortlich war, während bei TPZ unter den gleichen Bedingungen keine Toxizität vorlag. Erklärt werden könnte die erhöhte Toxizität und Mutagenität durch so genannte geclusterte DNA-Schäden, die von Gamma-Strahlen, nicht jedoch von TPZ gebildet werden. Nach einer verlängerten Inkubation wurde sowohl für die Toxizität als auch für die Genotoxizität erneut ein verstärkender Effekt durch die OR bestätigt. Überraschend war weiterhin die von der OR unabhängige Generierung von Doppelstrangbrüchen, für die demnach ein grundsätzlich anderer Mechanismus, wie zum Beispiel eine direkte Interaktion mit der Topoisomerase II, angenommen werden muss.

Low dose irinotecan improves advanced lupus nephritis in mice potentially by changing DNA relaxation and anti–double-stranded DNA binding

Objective Albeit clear advances in the treatment of SLE, many patients still present with refractory lupus nephritis requiring new treatment strategies for this disease. Here we determined whether reduced doses of the topoisomerase I inhibitor irinotecan, which is known as chemotherapeutic agent, were able to suppress SLE in NZB/W F1 mice. We further evaluated the potential mechanism how irinotecan influenced the course of SLE. Methods NZB/W F1 mice were treated with low dose irinotecan either from week 24 of age or from established glomerulonephritis defined by a proteinuria ≥grade 3+. Binding of anti-dsDNA antibodies was measured by ELISA; and DNA relaxation was visualized by gel electrophoresis. Results Significantly reduced irinotecan dosages improved lupus nephritis and prolonged survival in NZB/W F1 mice. The lowest dose successfully used for the treatment of established murine lupus nephritis was more than 50 times lower than the dose usually applied for chemotherapy in humans. As a mechanism, low dose irinotecan reduced B cell activity; however, the levels of B cell activity in irinotecan-treated mice were similar to those in Balb/c mice of the same age suggesting that irinotecan did not induce a clear immunosuppression. In addition, incubation of double-stranded (ds) DNA with topoisomerase I increased binding of murine and human anti-dsDNA antibodies showing for the first time that relaxed DNA is more susceptible to anti-dsDNA antibody binding. This effect was reversed by addition of the topoisomerase I inhibitor camptothecin. Conclusion Our results propose topoisomerase I inhibitors as a novel and targeted therapy for SLE. © 2014 American College of Rheumatology.

The mechanism of action of a novel benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloid, NK314 and the cellular responses

NK314 is a novel synthetic benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloid that is currently in clinical trials as an antitumor compound, based on impressive activities in preclinical models. However, its mechanism of action is unknown. The present investigations were directed at determining the mechanism of action of this agent and cellular responses to NK314. My studies demonstrated that NK314 intercalated into DNA, trapped topoisomerase IIα in its cleavage complex intermediate, and inhibited the ability of topoisomerase IIα to relax super-coiled DNA. CEM/VM1 cells, which are resistant to etoposide due to mutations in topoisomerase IIα, were cross-resistant to NK314. However, CEM/C2 cells, which are resistant to camptothecin due to mutations in topoisomerase I, retained sensitivity. This indicates topoisomerase IIα is the target of NK314 in the cells. NK314 caused phosphorylation of the histone variant, H2AX, which is considered a marker of DNA double-strand breaks. DNA double-strand breaks were also evidenced by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and visualized as chromosomal aberrations after cells were treated with NK314 and arrested in mitosis. Cell cycle checkpoints are activated following DNA damage. NK314 induced significant G2 cell cycle arrest in several cell lines, independent of p53 status, suggesting the existence of a common mechanism of checkpoint activation. The Chk1-Cdc25C-Cdk1 G2 checkpoint pathway was activated in response to NK314, which can be abrogated by the Chk1 inhibitor UCN-01. Cell cycle checkpoint activation may be a defensive mechanism that provides time for DNA repair. DNA double-strand breaks are repaired either through ATM-mediated homologous recombination or DNA-PK-mediated non-homologous end-joining repair pathways. Clonogenic assays demonstrated a significant decrease of colony formation in both ATM deficient and DNA-PK deficient cells compared to ATM repleted and DNA-PK wild type cells respectively, indicating that both ATM and DNA-PK play important roles in the survival of the cells in response to NK314. The DNA-PK specific inhibitor NU7441 also significantly sensitized cells to NK314. In conclusion, the major mechanism of NK314 is to intercalate into DNA, trap and inhibit topoisomerase IIα, an action that leads to the generation of double-strand DNA breaks, which activate ATM and DNA-PK mediated DNA repair pathways and Chk1 mediated G2 checkpoint pathway. ^

Searching for the ideal DNA recognition code of covalent ligands

The combitiatorial approach restriction endonuclease protection selection and amplification REPSA was successfully used to determine ideal DNA interactions sites of covalent ligands. Unlike most other combinatorial methods, REPSA is based on inhibition of enzymatic cleavage by specific ligand-DNA complexes, which enables identification of binding sites of various ligands. However, the inherent nature of this technique posses a problem during selection of binding sites of covalent ligands. By modifying the technique according to the nature of the ligand, we demonstrate the flexibility of REPSA in identifying the preferred binding sites for monocovalent ligands, topoisomerase I and tallimustine, and the bicovalent ligand topoisomerase II. From among the preferred binding sites, we identified the consensus binding sequence of camptothecin induced topoisomerase I cleavage as ‘aGWT/Gc’, and tallimustine consensus sequences as ‘GTTCTA’ and ‘TTTTTTC’. We have shown for the first time that preferential binding of tallimustine occurs at sequences not previously reported. Furthermore, our data indicate that tallimustine is a novel DNA minor groove, guanine-specific alkylating agent. ^ Additionally, we have demonstrated in vivo that sequence-specific covalent DNA-binding small molecules have the ability to regulate transcription by inhibiting RNA polymerase II. Tallimustine, binding to its preferred sequences located in the 5′ untranslated region were an effective impediment for transcribing polymerase II. The ability of covalent binding small molecules to target predetermined DNA sequences located downstream of the promoter suggests a general approach for regulation of gene expression. ^

MLL is fused to CBP, a histone acetyltransferase, in therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia with a t(11;16)(q23;p13.3)

The recurring translocation t(11;16)(q23;p13.3) has been documented only in cases of acute leukemia or myelodysplasia secondary to therapy with drugs targeting DNA topoisomerase II. We show that the MLL gene is fused to the gene that codes for CBP (CREB-binding protein), the protein that binds specifically to the DNA-binding protein CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) in this translocation. MLL is fused in-frame to a different exon of CBP in two patients producing chimeric proteins containing the AT-hooks, methyltransferase homology domain, and transcriptional repression domain of MLL fused to the CREB binding domain or to the bromodomain of CBP. Both fusion products retain the histone acetyltransferase domain of CBP and may lead to leukemia by promoting histone acetylation of genomic regions targeted by the MLL AT-hooks, leading to transcriptional deregulation via aberrant chromatin organization. CBP is the first partner gene of MLL containing well defined structural and functional motifs that provide unique insights into the potential mechanisms by which these translocations contribute to leukemogenesis.