Independent fusions and recent origins of sex chromosomes in the evolution and diversification of glass knife fishes (Eigenmannia)

The genus Eigenmannia comprises several species groups that display a surprising variety of diploid chromosome numbers and sex-determining systems. In this study, hypotheses regarding phylogenetic relationships and karyotype evolution were investigated using a combination of molecular and cytogenetic methods. Phylogenetic relationships were analyzed for 11 cytotypes based on sequences from five mitochondrial DNA regions. Parsimony-based character mapping of sex chromosomes confirms previous suggestions of multiple origins of sex chromosomes. Molecular cytogenetic analyses involved chromosome painting using probes derived from whole sex chromosomes from two taxa that were hybridized to metaphases of their respective sister cytotypes. These analyses showed that a multiple XY system evolved recently (<7 mya) by fusion. Furthermore, one of the chromosomes that fused to form the neo-Y chromosome is fused independently to another chromosome in the sister cytotype. This may constitute an efficient post-mating barrier and might imply a direct function of sex chromosomes in the speciation processes in Eigenmannia. The other chromosomal sex-determination system investigated is shown to have differentiated by an accumulation of heterochromatin on the X chromosome. This has occurred in the past 0.6 my, and is the most recent chromosomal sex-determining system described to date. These results show that the evolution of sex-determining systems can proceed very rapidly. Heredity (2011) 106, 391-400; doi:10.1038/hdy.2010.82; published online 23 June 2010

Impact of breed and sex on porcine endocrine transcriptome: a bayesian biometrical analysis

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Sex chromosome composition revealed in Characidium fishes (Characiformes: Crenuchidae) by molecular cytogenetic methods

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Complex sex chromosome system in Eigenmannia sp. (Pisces, Gymnotiformes)

Chromosomes of Eigenmannia sp. (7 males and 15 females) collected from the Tietê River in Botucatu (SP, Brazil) were examined from gill, kidney and testicular cells. The diploid chromosome number in males was 2n=31 and in females, 2n=32. In both sexes the number of chromosomal arms was 40. The difference in diploid number was due to the fusion of two acrocentrics. Mitotic and meiotic studies suggested that one of the fused acrocentrics was the Y chromosome. The sex-determining mechanism in Eigenmannia sp. could therefore be XX, AA in the female and X, \-YA A in the males. One of the males presented 2n=30 chromosomes due to the occurrence of another fusion of acrocentrics. C-banding analysis of the mitotic chromosomes revealed constitutive heterochromatin in the centromeric regions of all acrocentrics. However, small metacentrics were C-band negative. The YA chromosome is C-band negative except for a small amount of heterochromatin in the centromeric region. The nucleolar organizer region as identified by Ag-staining is present in the interstitial region of chromosome pair No. 10. © 1984 Dr W. Junk Publishers.

Charakterisierung und Analyse der geschlechtsbestimmenden Region von Chironomus riparius

Die durch eine männchenspezifisch auftretende heterochromatische Bande und ein hemizygotes Cla-Element-Cluster gekennzeichnete geschlechtsbestimmende Region („sex determining region“: SDR) auf Chromosom III von C. riparius stellt ein frühes Stadium in der Evolution von Geschlechtschromosomen dar. Diese eindeutig lokalisierte chromosomale Region, die den molekular noch unbekannten männchen¬bestimmenden Faktor M enthalten muss, ist im Vergleich zu den Y-Chromosomen anderer Dipterenarten wie unter anderem M. domestica, die ebenfalls einen dominanten Männchenbestimmer besitzen, relativ klein. Aus diesem Grund bietet die SDR von C. riparius eine Möglichkeit, den männchenbestimmenden Faktor einzugrenzen und zu identifizieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte ein Bereich einer Größe von ca. 200 kb aus der SDR von C. riparius charakterisiert und analysiert werden. Durch bioinformatische Sequenzanalysen konnten an 20 Stellen der SDR mögliche Genstrukturen nachgewiesen werden. Von den gefundenen möglichen Genen ist bisher die Funktion in C. riparius unbekannt. Bei den Genen mit vermuteter Funktion deutet nichts eindeutig auf eine Beteiligung an der Geschlechtsbestimmung von C. riparius hin. Da allerdings davon auszugehen ist, dass für die Funktion des Männchenbestimmers M ein Gen rekrutiert wurde, welches zur Interaktion mit dem nachgeschalteten Gen der Geschlechts¬bestimmungskaskade fähig ist, muss die geschlechtsbestimmende Funktion des Gens M nicht unbedingt offensichtlich sein. Aus geschlechtsbestimmenden Genkaskaden anderer Dipteren bekannte Gene wie transformer und doublesex konnten im analysierten Bereich nicht nachgewiesen werden, obwohl zumindest zu doublesex homologe Gene im Genom von C. riparius vorkommen. Um möglicherweise proto-X- und proto-Y-Chromosom miteinander vergleichen zu können und einen Hinweis auf die chromosomale Herkunft der analysierten Sequenzen aus der SDR zu erlangen, wurden Sequenzen von 31 teilweise parallel liegenden BAC-Klonen aus der untersuchten Region verglichen. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Klone zwei Gruppen bilden, deren Sequenzen sich durch 500 SNPs und 110 Indels unterschiedlicher Größe (1-800 Bp) unterscheiden, was für eine Herkunft von zwei sich erst seit kurzer Zeit unterscheidenden Geschlechtschromosomen spricht. Die zwölf größten dieser Indels wurden auf geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede hin untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Klongruppen zwar im 30 Jahre alten Laborstamm, der auch für die Konstruktion der durchsuchten BAC-Bibliotheken verwendet wurde, tatsächlich geschlechtsspezifisch sind, in zwei Wildfangpopulationen jedoch keine derartige Geschlechtsspezifität aufweisen. Somit kann keine Aussage zur Herkunft der untersuchten Klone aus der SDR von C. riparius getroffen werden, und es bleibt unklar, ob die analysierten Sequenzen vom proto-X oder vom proto-Y-Chromosom stammen.

Vergleichende Analyse der Gene und der Genomstruktur der geschlechtsbestimmenden Chromosomenregion von Chironomus und Camptochironomus

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein Bereich aus der geschlechtsbestimmenden Chromosomenregion, der „Contig SDR“, von C. tentans mit einer Größe von ~87 kb untersucht. Zur Erstellung des Contigs wurden 8 BAC-Klone aus C. tentans isoliert, teilweise subkloniert und sequenziert. Innerhalb des Contigs SDR konnten insgesamt 13 Gene sowie ein Teilbereich des Gens rpS5-like im distalen Bereich des Contigs SDR identifiziert werden. Hierbei handelt es sich um dieselben Gene, welche schon im Contig SDR von C. thummi identifiziert werden konnten. Ein Vergleich der beiden Contigs zeigt, dass die Abfolge der Gene zwischen den beiden Arten C. thummi und C. tentans identisch ist. Weiterhin konnten im Contig SDR von C. tentans sechs Bereiche lokalisiert werden, in denen repetitive oder transposable Elemente zu finden sind. Ein Vergleich der larvalen Transkripte (L4-Stadium) von 11 Genen des Contigs SDR aus C. thummi ♂ und C. thummi ♀ per RT-PCR und Hochdurchsatz-Sequenzierung zeigte mit Ausnahme der Gene luc7(p)-like sowie fs(1)K10-like bislang keine weiteren geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede. Im Gen luc7(p)-like konnte in C. thummi ♀ und C. piger ♀ ein alternativ gespleißtes Intron im eigentlichen Exon 2 identifiziert werden. Bei fs(1)K10-like konnte in C. thummi ♂ eine Duplikation des Gens nachgewiesen werden. Weiterhin wurden mit Hilfe des RACE-Verfahrens die 5’UTR- und 3’UTR-Bereiche der Transkripte analysiert. Hierdurch konnten differentielle Spleißprodukte identifiziert werden, welche jedoch nicht geschlechtsspezifisch auftreten. Die bioinformatische Bearbeitung der von den Genen der SDR kodierten Proteine auf konservierte Domänen zeigt vier Proteine, die möglicherweise als Transkriptions- oder Spleißfaktoren wirken können. Hierbei handelt es sich um die Proteine der Gene mi-er1-like, luc7(p)-like, polyhomeotic-like sowie rpn5-like. Für das auf Grund der männchenspezifischen Duplikation in C. thummi in den Fokus geratene Genprodukt von fs(1)K10-like konnten keine Domänen vorhergesagt werden. Somit kann nicht gesagt werden, ob das Protein im Rahmen der Geschlechtsdetermination eine Funktion haben könnte. Die Sequenzidentität der abgeleiteten AS-Sequenz liegt für alle Gene außer mi-er1-like (87,6 %) zwischen den beiden Arten C. tentans und C. thummi bei 93,3 %.

A genetic characterization of {\it runt\/} activity during {\it Drosophila\/} embryogenesis

The Drosophila melanogaster gene runt encodes a novel transcriptional regulator that was originally identified on the basis of its key role in embryonic pattern formation. For my thesis I undertook a genetic analysis of runt activity to identify loci that interact with this unique transcriptional regulator. Specifically, I screened the genome with deficiencies for loci that interact with runt in a dose-dependent fashion during early embryogenesis. From this screen I discovered a vital dose-dependent interaction between runt and the achaete-scute complex (AS-C). The characterization of this interaction led to the exciting discovery of important roles for runt in sex determination and neurogenesis (Duffy and Gergen 1991, Duffy et al. 1991). I demonstrated that in sex determination runt is necessary for the normal transcriptional activation of the master sex-determining gene Sx1 and has all the properties of an X:A numerator element. I also showed that runt is required during the early stages of neurogenesis for the normal development of a subset of CNS ganglion mother cells and neurons. In addition, the screen, which focused on the identification and characterization of maternal loci that influence the activity of runt during segmentation, identified several new maternal loci, one of which affects the activity of the maternal posterior group genes on embryonic pattern formation. ^

The human sex-reversing ATRX gene has a homologue on the marsupial Y chromosome, ATRY: Implications for the evolution of mammalian sex determination

Mutations in the ATRX gene on the human X chromosome cause X-linked α-thalassemia and mental retardation. XY patients with deletions or mutations in this gene display varying degrees of sex reversal, implicating ATRX in the development of the human testis. To explore further the role of ATRX in mammalian sex differentiation, the homologous gene was cloned and characterized in a marsupial. Surprisingly, active homologues of ATRX were detected on the marsupial Y as well as the X chromosome. The Y-borne copy (ATRY) displays testis-specific expression. This, as well as the sex reversal of ATRX patients, suggests that ATRY is involved in testis development in marsupials and may represent an ancestral testis-determining mechanism that predated the evolution of SRY as the primary mammalian male sex-determining gene. There is no evidence for a Y-borne ATRX homologue in mouse or human, implying that this gene has been lost in eutherians and its role supplanted by the evolution of SRY from SOX3 as the dominant determiner of male differentiation.

Loss of sequences 3' to the testis-determining gene, SRY, including the Y pseudoautosomal boundary associated with partial testicular determination.

The condition termed 46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis is characterized by a completely female phenotype and streak gonads. In contrast, subjects with 46,XY partial gonadal dysgenesis and those with embryonic testicular regression sequence usually present ambiguous genitalia and a mix of Müllerian and Wolffian structures. In 46,XY partial gonadal dysgenesis gonadal histology shows evidence of incomplete testis determination. In 46,XY embryonic testicular regression sequence there is lack of gonadal tissue on both sides. Various lines of evidence suggest that embryonic testicular regression sequence is a variant form of 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis. The sex-determining region Y chromosome gene (SRY) encodes sequences for the testis-determining factor. To date germ-line mutations in SRY have been reported in approximately 20% of subjects with 46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis. However, no germ-line mutations of SRY have been reported in subjects with the partial forms. We studied 20 subjects who presented either 46,XY partial gonadal dysgenesis or 46,XY embryonic testicular regression sequence. We examined the SRY gene and the minimum region of Y-specific DNA known to confer a male phenotype. The SRY-open reading frame (ORF) was normal in all subjects. However a de novo interstitial deletion 3' to the SRY-ORF was found in one subject. Although it is possible that the deletion was unrelated to the subject's phenotype, we propose that the deletion was responsible for the abnormal gonadal development by diminishing expression of SRY. We suggest that the deletion resulted either in the loss of sequences necessary for normal SRY expression or in a position effect that altered SRY expression. This case provides further evidence that deletions of the Y chromosome outside the SRY-ORF can result in either complete or incomplete sex reversal.

46,XX doença do desenvolvimento sexual testicular : a propósito de um caso clínico

Trabalho Final do Curso de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 2014

Origin and possible roles of the Sox8 transcription factor gene during sexual development

Sox8 is a member of the Sox family of developmental transcription factor genes and is closely related to Sox9, a critical gene involved in mammalian sex determination and differentiation. Both genes encode proteins with the ability to bind similar DNA target sequences, and to activate transcription in in vitro assays. Expression studies indicate that the two genes have largely overlapping patterns of activity during mammalian embryonic development. A knockout of Sox8 in mice has no obvious developmental phenotype, suggesting that the two genes are able to act redundantly in a variety of developmental contexts. In particular, both genes are expressed in the developing Sertoli cell lineage of the developing testes in mice, and both proteins are able to activate transcription of the gene encoding anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH), through synergistic action with steroidogenic factor I (SF1). We have hypothesized that Sox8 may substitute for Sox9 in species where Sox9 is expressed too late to be involved in sex determination or regulation of Amh expression. However, our studies involving the red-eared slider turtle indicate that Sox8 is expressed at similar levels in males and females throughout the sex-determining period, suggesting that Sox8 is neither a transcriptional regulator for Amh, nor responsible for sex determination or gonad differentiation in that species. Similarly, Sox8 is not expressed in a sexually dimorphic pattern during gonadogenesis in the chicken. Since a functional role(s) for Sox8 is implied by its conservation during evolution, the significance of Sox8 for sexual and other aspects of development will need to be uncovered through more directed lines of experimentation. Copyright (C) 2003 S. Karger AG, Basel.

Pluripotent Reprogramming of Fibroblasts by Lentiviralmediated Insertion of SOX2, C-MYC, and TCL-1A

Reprogramming of somatic cells to pluripotency promises to boost cellular therapy. Most instances of direct reprogramming have been achieved by forced expression of defined exogenous factors using multiple viral vectors. The most used 4 transcription factors, octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT4), (sex determining region Y)-box 2 (SOX2), Kruppel-like factor 4 (KLF4), and v-myc myelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog (C-MYC), can induce pluripotency in mouse and human fibroblasts. Here, we report that forced expression of a new combination of transcription factors (T-cell leukemia/lymphoma protein 1A [TCL-1A], C-MYC, and SOX2) is sufficient to promote the reprogramming of human fibroblasts into pluripotent cells. These 3-factor pluripotent cells are similar to human embryonic stem cells in morphology, in the ability to differentiate into cells of the 3 embryonic layers, and at the level of global gene expression. Induced pluripotent human cells generated by a combination of other factors will be of great help for the understanding of reprogramming pathways. This, in turn, will allow us to better control cell-fate and apply this knowledge to cell therapy.

The gene transformer-2 of Anastrepha fruit flies (Diptera, Tephritidae) and its evolution in insects

Background: In the tephritids Ceratitis, Bactrocera and Anastrepha, the gene transformer provides the memory device for sex determination via its auto-regulation; only in females is functional Tra protein produced. To date, the isolation and characterisation of the gene transformer-2 in the tephritids has only been undertaken in Ceratitis, and it has been shown that its function is required for the female-specific splicing of doublesex and transformer pre-mRNA. It therefore participates in transformer auto-regulatory function. In this work, the characterisation of this gene in eleven tephritid species belonging to the less extensively analysed genus Anastrepha was undertaken in order to throw light on the evolution of transformer-2. Results: The gene transformer-2 produces a protein of 249 amino acids in both sexes, which shows the features of the SR protein family. No significant partially spliced mRNA isoform specific to the male germ line was detected, unlike in Drosophila. It is transcribed in both sexes during development and in adult life, in both the soma and germ line. The injection of Anastrepha transformer-2 dsRNA into Anastrepha embryos caused a change in the splicing pattern of the endogenous transformer and doublesex pre-mRNA of XX females from the female to the male mode. Consequently, these XX females were transformed into pseudomales. The comparison of the eleven Anastrepha Transformer-2 proteins among themselves, and with the Transformer-2 proteins of other insects, suggests the existence of negative selection acting at the protein level to maintain Transformer-2 structural features. Conclusions: These results indicate that transformer-2 is required for sex determination in Anastrepha through its participation in the female-specific splicing of transformer and doublesex pre-mRNAs. It is therefore needed for the auto-regulation of the gene transformer. Thus, the transformer/transfomer-2 > doublesex elements at the bottom of the cascade, and their relationships, probably represent the ancestral state ( which still exists in the Tephritidae, Calliphoridae and Muscidae lineages) of the extant cascade found in the Drosophilidae lineage ( in which tra is just another component of the sex determination gene cascade regulated by Sex-lethal). In the phylogenetic lineage that gave rise to the drosophilids, evolution co-opted for Sex-lethal, modified it, and converted it into the key gene controlling sex determination.

Successful maintenance of a stingless bee population despite a severe genetic bottleneck

Stingless bees play an important ecological role as pollinators of many wild plant species in the tropics and have significant potential for the pollination of agricultural crops. Nevertheless, conservation efforts as well as commercial breeding programmes require better guidelines on the amount of genetic variation that is needed to maintain viable populations. In this context, we carried out a long-term genetic study on the stingless bee Melipona scutellaris to evaluate the population viability consequences of prolonged breeding from a small number of founder colonies. In particular, it was artificially imposed a genetic bottleneck by setting up a population starting from only two founder colonies, and continued breeding from it for a period of over 10 years in a location outside its natural area of occurrence. We show that despite a great reduction in the number of alleles present at both neutral microsatellite loci and the sex-determining locus relative to its natural source population, and an increased frequency in the production of sterile diploid males, the genetically impoverished population could be successfully bred and maintained for at least 10 years. This shows that in stingless bees, breeding from a small stock of colonies may have less severe consequences than previously suspected. In addition, we provide a simulation model to determine the number of colonies that are needed to maintain a certain number of sex alleles in a population, thereby providing useful guidelines for stingless bee breeding and conservation efforts.

Temperature variation within and between nests of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas (Chelonia : Cheloniidae) on Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef

Four temperature data-loggers were placed in each of five green sea turtle nests on Heron Island in the 1998-99 nesting season. Temperatures in all nests increased as incubation progressed due to general sand heating and increased metabolic heat production of the developing embryos. Even at the top of nests no daily diurnal fluctuation in temperature was evident. The temperature of eggs in the middle of the nest increased above those in the nest periphery during the last third of incubation. However, this metabolic nest heating would have little effect on hatchling sex ratio because it occurred after the sex-determining period. Small differences in temperature between regions of a nest persisted throughout incubation and may be important in ensuring the production of at least some individuals of the opposite sex in nests that have temperatures close to either the all-male or all-female determining temperatures. Location and degree of shading of nests had little effect on mean nest temperature, but deeper nests were generally cooler and therefore were predicted to produce a higher proportion of males than were shallower nests. Nest temperature profile data indicated that the 1998-99 nesting season on Heron Island would have produced a strongly female-biased sex ratio amongst hatchlings.