Ego depletion in color priming research: Self-control strength moderates the detrimental effect of red on cognitive test performance

Colors have been found to affect psychological functioning. Empirical evidence suggests that, in test situations, brief perceptions of the color red or even the word "red" printed in black ink prime implicit anxious responses and consequently impair cognitive performance. However, we propose that this red effect depends on people's momentary capacity to exert control over their prepotent responses (i.e., self-control). In three experiments (Ns = 66, 78, and 130), first participants' self-control strength was manipulated. Participants were then primed with the color or word red versus gray prior to completing an arithmetic test or an intelligence test. As expected, self-control strength moderated the red effect. While red had a detrimental effect on performance of participants with depleted self-control strength (ego depletion), it did not affect performance of participants with intact self-control strength. We discuss implications of the present findings within the current debate on the robustness of priming results

Autonomy as a protective factor against the detrimental effects of ego depletion on tennis serve accuracy under pressure

It has been repeatedly demonstrated that athletes in a state of ego depletion do not perform up to their capabilities. We assume that autonomous self-control exertion, in contrast to forced self-control exertion, can serve as a buffer against ego depletion effects and can help individuals to show superior performance. In the present study, we applied a between-subjects design to test the assumption that autonomously exerted self-control is less detrimental for subsequent self-control performance in sports than is forced self-control exertion. In a primary self-control task, the level of autonomy was manipulated through specific instructions, resulting in three experimental conditions (autonomy-supportive: n = 19; neutral: n = 19; controlling: n = 19). As a secondary self-control task, participants executed a series of tennis serves under high-pressure conditions, and performance accuracy served as our dependent variable. As expected, a one-way between-groups ANOVA revealed that participants from the autonomy-supportive condition performed significantly better under pressure than did participants from the controlling condition. These results further highlight the importance of autonomy-supportive instructions in order to enable athletes to show superior achievements in high-pressure situations. Practical implications for the coach–athlete relationship are discussed.

Is ego depletion associated with increased distractibility? Results from a basketball free throw task

Objectives: It has been repeatedly demonstrated that athletes in a state of ego depletion do not perform up to their capabilities in high pressure situations. We assume that momentarily available self-control strength determines whether individuals in high pressure situations can resist distracting stimuli. Design/method: In the present study, we applied a between-subjects design, as 31 experienced basketball players were randomly assigned to a depletion group or a non-depletion group. Participants performed 30 free throws while listening to statements representing worrisome thoughts (as frequently experienced in high pressure situations) over stereo headphones. Participants were instructed to block out these distracting audio messages and focus on the free throws. We postulated that depleted participants would be more likely to be distracted. They were also assumed to perform worse in the free throw task. Results: The results supported our assumption as depleted participants paid more attention to the distracting stimuli. In addition, they displayed worse performance in the free throw task. Conclusions: These results indicate that sufficient levels of self-control strength can serve as a buffer against distracting stimuli under pressure.

Ego depletion and attention regulation under pressure: Is a temporary loss of self-control strength indeed related to impaired attention regulation?

In the current study we investigated whether ego depletion negatively affects attention regulation under pressure in sports by assessing participants' dart throwing performance and accompanying gaze behavior. According to the strength model of self-control, the most important aspect of self-control is attention regulation. Because higher levels of state anxiety are associated with impaired attention regulation, we chose a mixed design with ego depletion (yes vs. no) as between-subjects and anxiety level (high vs. low) as within-subjects factor. Participants performed a perceptual-motor task requiring selective attention, namely, dart throwing. In line with our expectations, depleted participants in the high-anxiety condition performed worse and displayed a shorter final fixation on bull's eye, demonstrating that when one's self-control strength is depleted, attention regulation under pressure cannot be maintained. This is the first study that directly supports the general assumption that ego depletion is a major factor in influencing attention regulation under pressure.

Was ist der Mechanismus hinter Ego Depletion-Effekten? Konzeptaktivierung als Erklärung von Selbstkontrollversäumnissen

Das Ressourcenmodell der Selbstkontrolle (Baumeister et al., 2007; Muraven & Baumeister, 2000) soll die Frage beantworten, wann und warum es zu Versäumnissen bezüglich der willentlichen Kontrolle des eigenen Erlebens und Verhaltens kommt. Die Autoren des Modells gehen davon aus, dass die erfolgreiche Ausführung von Selbstkontrolle von einer begrenzten Ressource abhängt. Demnach soll anfängliche Selbstkontrolle zu einer erschöpften Selbstkontrollressource (Ego Depletion) führen, was anschließende Selbstkontrolle beeinträchtigt. In letzter Zeit mehrt sich jedoch die Kritik an diesem Ressourcenansatz. In meinem Vortrag werde ich einen alternativen Erklärungsansatz für die bisher gefundenen Ego-Depletion-Effekte vorstellen. Ausgangspunkt meines Modells ist die Annahme, dass die Ausübung von Selbstkontrolle mit der impliziten oder expliziten Registrierung psycho-physiologischer Veränderungen einhergeht. Diese führt meiner Ansicht nach zur Aktivierung eines kognitiven Erschöpfungskonzepts. Als Folge davon sollte die Anstrengungsbereitschaft, und damit die gezeigte Selbstkontrolle, reduziert werden. Der neue Erklärungsansatz integriert unter anderem dem bisherigen Ressourcenmodell zuwiderlaufende Evidenz in einem einzelnen moderierten Mediationsmodell.

Ego depletion and persistent performance in a cycling task

We tested the assumption that persistent performance in an exhausting indoor cycling task would depend on momentarily available self-control strength (N = 20 active participants). In a within-subjects design (two points of measurement, exactly seven days apart), participants’ self-control strength was experimentally manipulated (depletion: yes vs. no; order counterbalanced) via the Stroop test before the participants performed a cycling task. In line with our hypothesis, hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) revealed that participants consistently performed worse over a period of 18 minutes when they were ego depleted. In addition, HLM analysis revealed that depleted participants invested less effort in the cycling task, as indicated by their lower heart rate. This effect escalated over time, as indicated by a time × condition interaction. These results indicate that self-control strength is necessary to obtain an optimal level of performance in endurance tasks requiring high levels of persistence. Practical implications are discussed.

Ego depletion and action initiation

Optimal sprint start performance requires the self-control of responses. Therefore, start performance should depend on self-control strength. It was expected that momentary depletion of self-control strength (ego depletion) would slow down the initiation of a sprint start, resulting in impaired reaction times. N = 37 participants performed three sprint starts at T1 and the average reaction times were measured with a foot-pressure release system attached under the starting block (in ms). Next, participants were randomly assigned to a depletion or a non-depletion condition and self-control strength was experimentally manipulated by applying the transcription task. Following the depletion manipulation, participants performed another series of three sprints (T2). The results of a mixed between (ego depletion: yes vs. no) within (T1 vs. T2) ANOVA supported the hypothesis as average reaction times in the depletion condition significantly increased from T1 (M = 0.35, SD = 0.03) to T2 (M = 0.38, SD = 0.04), F(1, 35) = 6.77, p = .01, η2p = .16. Average reaction times in the non-depletion condition did not differ significantly between T1 (M = 0.36, SD = 0.03) and T2 (M = 0.35, SD = 0.04), F(1, 35) = 0.47, p = .50, η2p = .01. In line with the hypothesis, higher levels of self-control strength were associated with quicker movement initiations. Therefore, improving self-control strength may serve as a buffer against the negative effects of ego depletion on performance.

The effect of ego depletion on distractibility

Athletes in a state of ego depletion do not perform up to their capabilities in high pressure situations (e.g., Englert & Bertrams, 2012). We assume that momentarily available self-control strength determines whether individuals in high pressure situations can resist distracting stimuli. In the present study, we applied a between-subjects design, as 31 experienced basketball players were randomly assigned to a depletion group or a non-depletion group. Participants performed 30 free throws while listening to statements representing worrisome thoughts (as frequently experienced in high pressure situations; Oudejans, Kuijpers, Kooijman, & Bakker, 2011) over stereo headphones. Participants were instructed to block out these distracting audio messages and focus on the free throws. We postulated that depleted participants would be more likely to be distracted and would perform worse in the free throw task. The results supported our assumption as depleted participants paid more attention to the distracting stimuli and displayed worse performance in the free throw task. These results indicate that sufficient levels of self-control strength can serve as a buffer against increased distractibility under pressure. Implementing self-control trainings into workout routines may be a useful approach (e.g., Oaten & Cheng, 2007).