Análisis de factores que intervienen en la internacionalización de las Pymes en Colombia

La comprensión de los factores que interviene en la internacionalización de las Pymes en Colombia, conlleva toda una compleja estructura, fundamentación, estrategias, teorías, modelos y metodología organizacional, en el contexto dinámico del mundo comercial y financiero. Por consiguiente, se realizó un análisis de las teorías, modelos de internacionalización y de los factores que allí se reflejan y que interviene en el desarrollo de las pequeñas y medianas empresas, se comparó con las Pymes en Colombia y se apoyó en datos estadísticos de entidades gubernamentales y bases de datos.

Los intereses estratégicos de EEUU, Rusia, China y Japón como determinantes de la estrategia de mantenimiento de la Estructura en la Península Coreana. 2003-2013.

El propósito principal de esta monografía es ofrecer una perspectiva crítica sobre el conflicto latente en la Península Coreana, haciendo un acercamiento al mismo desde un marco teórico asentado en el realismo estructural de Kenneth Waltz. De este modo, se busca responder a cuestiones sobre los intereses estatales como fundamento básico de las estrategias de mantenimiento de la Estructura en regiones geopolíticamente sensibles. Al final, se llega a la conclusión afirmando que la Estructura ejerce una serie de funciones para garantizar su preservación mediante una acción de convergencia en la conducta de los Estados. Esta realidad ha mantenido a la Península Coreana sin un conflicto bélico en los últimos 50 años, muy a pesar de estar al borde del mismo en varias ocasiones, ya que de llegarse a presentar se rompería la estabilidad de la región, y por ende el Equilibrio de Poderes estaría en grave riesgo.

Análisis del modelo de Internacionalización de e-Tech Simulation según la teoría de redes

La teoría de redes de Johanson y Mattson (1988) explica como las pequeñas empresas, también conocidas como PyMes, utilizan las redes de negocio para desarrollar sus procesos de internacionalización. Es así que a través de las redes pueden superar sus limitaciones de tamaño para encontrar cierto tipo de fluidez y dinamismo en su gestión, con el fin de aprovechar los beneficios de la internacionalización. A partir del desarrollo y fortalecimiento de las relaciones dentro de la red la organización puede posicionarse en una instancia competitiva cada vez más fuerte (Jarillo, 1988). Según Forsgren y Johanson (1992), para los gerentes es importante coordinar la interacción entre los diferentes actores de la red, ya que a través de estas su posición dentro de la red mejora y así mismo el flujo de recursos será mayor. El propósito de este trabajo es analizar el modelo de internacionalización según la teoría de redes, desde una perspectiva cultural, de e-Tech Simulation una PyME “Born to be global” norteamericana. Esta empresa ha minimizado su riesgo de internacionalización, a través del desarrollo de acuerdos entre los diferentes actores. Al mejorar su posición dentro de la red, es decir al fortalecer aún más los lazos existentes y crear nuevas relaciones, la empresa ha obtenido mayores beneficios de la misma y ha logrado ser aún más flexible con sus clientes. Es por esto que a partir de este análisis se planteó una serie de recomendaciones para mejorar los procesos de negociación dentro de la red, bajo un contexto cultural. De igual forma se evidencio la importancia del papel del emprendimiento del gerente en los procesos de internacionalización, así como su habilidad para mezclar los recursos obtenidos de diferentes mercados internacionales para satisfacer las necesidades de los clientes.

Reposicionamento da marca Portugal

RESUMO: A Marca de um País também vende. A imagem de um País é nos dias de hoje um activo muito importante para a sua economia. Uma marca é uma promessa feita ao consumidor, é o ponto de referência de todas as impressões, positivas e negativas adquiridas ao longo do tempo. O Marketing é a ferramenta que deverá percepcionar, estudar e apresentar factores de diferenciação, mostrar e convencer os consumidores das qualidades de um produto ou serviço. A realidade impõe uma atenção especial ao tema e a Marca Portugal teve um boom de programas de desenvolvimento e de promoção a partir dos anos 90 do séc. XX. O responsável pela gestão da Marca Portugal é o Governo, através da AICEP, Agência para o Investimento e Comércio Externo de Portugal, que tem como missão aumentar a notoriedade de Portugal, dinamizando o investimento estruturante e a internacionalização das empresas, criando condições competitivas e estimulando a exportação no Mercado Global, diversificando a oferta dos produtos e os Países de Destino. A falta de estratégia e os planos mal sucedidos, são alguns dos erros apontados à gestão da Marca Portugal, mas é determinante assumir claramente que a assumpção da Marca e o seu Reposicionamento é um vector estratégico para o desenvolvimento do País. Portugal tem boas referências, na indústria, nos serviços, tem produto, que podem ajudar a promover a imagem global de Portugal e contribuir para o aumento das receitas, seja das exportações, do Turismo ou do Investimento Estrangeiro. Portugal precisa de um Plano de Marketing e de uma entidade gestora de Marca, que garanta uma gestão eficaz da Marca Portugal, integrada e articulada com todos os produtos e serviços estratégicos para a exportação ou para o consumo interno. Esta dissertação apresenta um Modelo de Reposicionamento da Marca Portugal que agrega todos os pontos positivos que Portugal possui, como, a sua capacidade de vendas, o seu potencial para se investir, o que há para ser visitado, e desenvolve um programa sério e transversal que promova Portugal no estrangeiro e que atraia investidores e visitantes. ABSTRACT: The Brand of a Nation also sells. The image of a country is, nowadays, an important asset for its economy. A brand is a promise made to the consumer; it is the reference point for all impressions, positive and negative acquired over time. Marketing is the tool that must perceive, study and present differentiation factors, must show and convince consumers about the qualities of a product or service. Reality demands a special attention to this topic and the Portugal Brand experienced a development and promotion program boom since the 20th Century 90’s. Currently, the figure in charge of the management of the Portugal Brand is the Government, through AICEP, whose mission is to increase the notoriety of Portugal, captivating structural investment and the internationalization of enterprises, mainly small and medium businesses, creating competitive conditions and stimulating exports to the Global Market, diversifying product offer and Destination Countries. Some errors have been pointed out in the management of the Portugal Brand, such as lack of strategy and unsuccessful plans, but it is imperative to irrevocably understand that Brand assumption and its Repositioning is a strategic vector for the development of the Country. Portugal has good references, either in industry, or services, has product, that help promoting Portugal’s global image and contributing to an increase in revenues, either in exports, Tourism or Direct Investment. Portugal needs a Marketing Plan and a Brand management entity, such as a Brand strategic executive council, to ensure an effective management of the Portugal Brand, integrated and articulated with all the products and services flagged as strategic assets for exportation or domestic use. This thesis presents a Repositioning Model of the Portugal Brand that aggregates all positive aspects that Portugal has, such as sale capacity, potential for investment, lots of places to visit, and develops a serious and transversal program to promote Portugal abroad and to attract investors and visitors alike.

Outward investments and productivity: evidence from European regions

Outward investments and productivity: evidence from European regions, Regional Studies. Using a novel data set on international investment projects, this paper builds measures of outward foreign direct investments (FDIs) for 262 regions of the European Union. This allows as estimation to be made of regressions of productivity growth over the 2007–11 period as a function of the number of FDIs. The number of outward FDIs in manufacturing activities is negatively associated with productivity growth in the home region, but investments in sales, distribution and marketing are associated with a boost in local productivity. This is driven especially by investments towards non-European Union locations. This evidence qualifies the fear of hollowing-out as a consequence of outward investments

Crítica do crescimento com poupança externa

O presente artigo é uma formalização da crítica à estratégia do crescimento com poupança externa. Apesar dos países de renda média serem pobres em capital, os déficits em conta corrente (poupança externa), financiados por empréstimos ou investimentos diretos externos, não necessariamente farão aumentar a taxa de acumulação de capital ou, mesmo, terão pouco impacto sobre ela, de forma que os déficits em conta serão associados a taxas de câmbio apreciadas, altos salários e ordenados reais e altos níveis de consumo. Conseqüentemente, o país se endividará para consumir, e não para investir e crescer. Apenas quando há grandes oportunidades de investimento, estimulados por uma diferença considerável entre a taxa de lucro esperada e a taxa de juros a longo prazo, o lucro adicional produzido pelo fluxo de capital estrangeiro será usado para investimento, e este trade-off entre a redução da poupança externa e interna não ocorrerá

China na América Latina: uma análise da perspectiva dos investimentos diretos estrangeiros

Este trabalho discute a dinâmica dos investimentos diretos da China para as economias mundiais e, particularmente, para a América do Sul. Após mais de três décadas de intenso crescimento econômico e de forte aumento de sua participação no comércio mundial, a economia chinesa vem realizando crescentes investimentos no exterior. No caso das economias da América do Sul, a influência comercial chinesa tem alterado substancialmente a importância de tradicionais parceiros comerciais e mesmo a importância do Brasil na região. Os fluxos de investimentos diretos, mesmo que ainda em pequena escala, indicam o mesmo caminho de aumento de sua influência sobre as diversas economias da região, especialmente na exploração de fontes de materiais primais e de alimentos. Com isso, a China reforça não somente pela via comercial, mas também pelos influxos de investimentos, a característica agrícolaprimária das economias da região.

Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean 1997

Incluye Bibliografía.

Three Essays in Spatial Economics

This work contributes to the field of spatial economics by embracing three distinct modelling approaches, belonging to different strands of the theoretical literature. In the first chapter I present a theoretical model in which the changes in urban system’s degree of functional specialisation are linked to (i) firms’ organisational choices and firms’ location decisions. The interplay between firms’ internal communication/managing costs (between headquarters and production plants) and the cost of communicating with distant business services providers leads the transition process from an “integrated” urban system where each city hosts every different functions to a “functionally specialised” urban system where each city is either a primary business center (hosting advanced business services providers, a secondary business center or a pure manufacturing city and all this city-types coexist in equilibrium.The second chapter investigates the impact of free trade on welfare in a two-country world modelled as an international Hotelling duopoly with quadratic transport costs and asymmetric countries, where a negative environmental externality is associated with the consumption of the good produced in the smaller country. Countries’ relative sizes as well as the intensity of negative environmental externality affect potential welfare gains of trade liberalisation. The third chapter focuses on the paradox, by which, contrary to theoretical predictions, empirical evidence shows that a decrease in international transport costs causes an increase in foreign direct investments (FDIs). Here we propose an explanation to this apparent puzzle by exploiting an approach which delivers a continuum of Bertrand- Nash equilibria ranging above marginal cost pricing. In our setting, two Bertrand firms, supplying a homogeneous good with a convex cost function, enter the market of a foreign country. We show that allowing for a softer price competition may indeed more than offset the standard effect generated by a decrease in trade costs, thereby restoring FDI incentives.

Entwicklung des Emirates Qatar : Strategien - Probleme - Erfolge

Qatar boomt. Da es hierzu keine ganzheitlichen Forschungsarbeiten gibt, werden in dieser Arbeit die neuesten Entwicklungen und Planungen mit hoher Aktualität und Praxisrelevanz erstmals erfasst und analysiert. Der Autor führt Informationssplitter von internationalen Organisationen und eigene Recherchen in ein ganzheitliches Bild zusammen. Qatar ist sich bewusst, dass Wachstum endlich sein kann. Welche Möglichkeiten hat das kleine Qatar von der Globalisierung zu profitieren und für sich Vorteile für die Zukunft nach dem Öl zu generieren? Der Fokus der Arbeit liegt auf den ökonomische und ökologischen Stellschrauben der Transformation unter wirtschaftsgeographischen, soziodemographischen und strategischen Gesichtspunkten mit lokalen, regionalen und internationalen Betrachtungsweisen in den Themenfeldern (Welt-) Wirtschaft, Bildung, Infrastruktur und Umwelt. Ausgewählte Faktorungleichgewichte werden in Bezug auf Aussenwirtschaft und Binnenwirtschaft erläutert sowie die Nutzung von korankonformen Finanzierungsinstrumenten und Direktinvestitionen von und in Qatar.rnrnKeywords: Qatar / Katar / Peak-Oil / Emirat / FDI / Qatarisches Modell / Masterplan / Wohlfahrtsmehrung / Disparität / Nachhaltigkeit / Islamic Banking / Agglomeration / Akkumulation / Globalisierung / Arabische Halbinsel / Persischer Golf / Faktor- Gleichgewichte / Doha / Aluminium / LNG / Gas / best practicern

Border Industry in Myanmar: Turning the Periphery into the Center of Growth

The Myanmar economy has not been deeply integrated into East Asia’s production and distribution networks, despite its location advantages and notably abundant, reasonably well-educated, cheap labor force. Underdeveloped infrastructure, logistics in particular, and an unfavorable business and investment environment hinder it from participating in such networks in East Asia. Service link costs, for connecting production sites in Myanmar and other remote fragmented production blocks or markets, have not fallen sufficiently low to enable firms, including multi-national corporations to reduce total costs, and so the Myanmar economy has failed to attract foreign direct investments. Border industry offers a solution. The Myanmar economy can be connected to the regional and global economy through its borders with neighboring countries, Thailand in particular, which already have logistic hubs such as deep-sea ports, airports and trunk roads. This paper examines the source of competitiveness of border industry by considering an example of the garment industry located in the Myanmar-Thai border area. Based on such analysis, we recognize the prospects of border industry and propose some policy measures to promote this on Myanmar soil.

The role of private sector in development: The relation between public-private investment in infrastructure and agricultural exports in developing countries

Increasing foreign private investment in developing countries explains why the Public-Private Investment (PPI) is becoming a key tool to reach the development goal. This article analyzes the relation between PPI in infrastructure and agricultural exports in developing countries. We use the panel data approach (52 countries and 17 years). Results show that PPI in infrastructure has a positive impact on agricultural exports of developing countries. The impact is greater in developing countries with higher income rates. This suggests that the lower income countries require the intervention of public sector without which private investment cannot help to economic development.

Private investment in Latin America. A report of the Subcommittee on Inter-American Economic Relationships.

At head of title: 88th Congress, 2d session. Joint committee print.

The advantage of Spanish multinational enterprises in Latin America

Multinational enterprises (MNEs) from Spain made large foreign direct investments (FDIs) in Latin America between 1990 and 2002, making Spain the second largest direct investor in this region since 1998, behind the United States. This dissertation explains the reasons that led Spanish firms to make these FDIs, as well as their operations in Latin America. Seven Spanish MNEs were included in this study, BBVA and SCH (banking), Telefónica (telecommunications), Endesa, Iberdrola and Unión Fenosa (public utilities), and Repsol-YPF (oil and natural gas). Quantitative and qualitative data were used. Data were collected from the firms' annual reports, from their archives and from personal interviews with senior executives, as well as from academic and specialized publications. ^ Results indicate that the large Spanish FDIs in Latin America were highly concentrated in a few firms from five sectors. The FDIs of these firms alone accounted for 70 percent of total Spanish FDI in Latin America in this period. The reasons for these investments were firm-specific and sector specific. A series of institutional conditions existed in Spain between the 1970s and the 1990s that allowed the employees of the firms to develop the knowledge and devise strategies to adjust to that set of conditions. First, the policies of the Spanish state favored the creation of large firms in these sectors, operating under conditions of monopoly sometimes. Secondly, the consumers put pressure on the firms to provide better and cheaper products as the Spanish economy grew and modernized. Thirdly, the employees of the firms had to adjust their services and products to the demands of the consumers and to the constraints of the state and the market. They adjusted the internal organization of the firm to be able to produce the goods and services that the market demanded. Externally, they also adopted patterns of interaction with outside agents and institutions. This patterned behavior was the “corporate culture” of each firm and the “normative framework” in which their employees operated. When the managers of the firms perceived that there were similar conditions in Latin America, they decided to operate there as well by making FDIs. ^

Financial media, globalisation, and China’s economic integration: comparing narrative construction of the Economist and Caijing

In June 2015, legal frameworks of the Asian Infrastructural Investment Bank were signed by its 57 founding members. Proposed and initiated by China, this multilateral development bank is considered to be an Asian counterpart to break the monopoly of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In October 2015, China’s Central Bank announced a benchmark interest rate cut to combat the economic slowdown. The easing policy coincides with the European Central Bank’s announcement of doubts over US Fed’s commitment to raise interest rates. Global stock markets responded positively to China’s move, with the exception of the indexes from Wall Street (Bland, 2015; Elliott, 2015). In the meantime, China’s ‘One Belt, One Road’ (or New Silk Road Economic Belt) became atopic of discourse in relation to its growing global economy, as China pledged $40 billion to trade and infrastructure projects (Bermingham, 2015). The foreign policy aims to reinforce the economic belt from western China through Central Asia towards Europe, as well as to construct maritime trading routes from coastal China through the South China Sea (Summers, 2015). In 2012, The Economist launched a new China section, to reveal the complexity of the‘meteoric rise’ of China. John Micklethwait, who was then the chief editor of the magazine, said that China’s emergence as a global power justified giving it a section of its own(Roush, 2012). In July 2015, Hu Shuli, the former chief editor of Caijing, announced the launch of a think tank and financial data service division called Caixin Insight Group, which encompasses the new Caixin China Purchasing Managers Index (PMI). Incooperation with with Markit Group, a principal global provider of PMI, the index soon became a widely cited economic indicator. One anecdote from November’s Caixin shows how much has changed: in a high-profile dialogue between Hu Shuli and Kevin Rudd, Hu insisted on asking questions in English; interestingly, the former Prime Minister of Australia insisted on replying in Chinese. These recent developments point to one thing: the economic ascent of China and its increasing influence on the power play between economics and politics in world markets. China has begun to take a more active role in rule making and enforcement under neoliberal frameworks. However, due to the country’s size and the scale of its economy in comparison to other countries, China’s version of globalisation has unique characteristics. The ‘Capitalist-socialist’ paradox is vital to China’s market-oriented transformation. In order to comprehend how such unique features are articulated and understood, there are several questions worth investigating in the realms of media and communication studies,such as how China’s neoliberal restructuring is portrayed and perceived by different types of interested parties, and how these portrayals are de-contextualised and re-contextualised in global or Anglo-American narratives. Therefore, based on a combination of the themes of globalisation, financial media and China’s economic integration, this thesis attempts to explore how financial media construct the narratives of China’s economic globalisation through the deployment of comparative and multi-disciplinary approaches. Two outstanding elite financial magazines, Britain’s The Economist, which has a global readership and influence, and Caijing, China’s leading financial magazine, are chosen as case studies to exemplify differing media discourses, representing, respectively, Anglo-American and Chinese socio-economic and political backgrounds, as well as their own journalistic cultures. This thesis tries to answer the questions of how and why China’s neoliberal restructuring is constructed from a globally-oriented perspective. The construction primarily involves people who are influential in business and policymaking. Hence, the analysis falls into the paradigm of elite-elite communication, which is an important but relatively less developed perspective in studying China and its globalisation. The comparing of characteristics of narrative construction are the result of the textual analysis of articles published over a ten-year period (mid-1998 to mid-2008). The corpus of samples come from the two media outlets’ coverage of three selected events:China becoming a member of the World Trade Organization, its outward direct investment, and the listing of stocks of Chinese companies in overseas exchanges, which are mutually exclusive in sample collection and collectively exhaustive in the inclusion of articles regarding China’s economic globalisation. The findings help to understand that, despite language, socio-economic and political differences, elite financial media with globally-oriented readerships share similar methods of and approaches to agenda setting, the evaluation of news prominence, the selection of frame, and the advocacy of deeply rooted neoliberal ideas. The comparison of their distinctive features reflects the different phases of building up the sense of identity in their readers as global elites, as well as the different economic interests that are aligned with the corresponding readerships. However, textual analysis is only relevant in terms of exploring how the narratives are constructed and the elements they include; textual analysis alone prevents us from seeing the obstacles and the constrains of the journalistic practices of construction. Therefore, this thesis provides a brief discussion of interviews with practitioners from the two media, in order to understand how similar or different narratives are manifested and perceived, how the concept of neoliberalism deviates from and is justified in the Chinese context, and how and for what purpose deviations arise from Western to Chinese contexts. The thesis also contributes to defining financial media in the domain of elite communication. The relevant and closely interlocking concepts of globalisation, elitism and neoliberalism are discussed, and are used as a theoretical bedrock in the analysis of texts and contexts. It is important to address the agenda-setting and ideological role of elite financial media, because of its narrative formula of infusing business facts with opinions,which is important in constructing the global elite identity as well as influencing neoliberal policy-making. On the other hand, ‘journalistic professionalism’ has been redefined, in that the elite identity is shared by the content producer, reader and the actors in the news stories emerging from the much-compressed news cycle. The professionalism of elite financial media requires a dual definition, that of being professional in the understanding of business facts and statistics, and that of being professional in the making sense of stories by deploying economic logic.