Anatomy and essential oils from aerial organs in three species of Aldama (Asteraceae-Heliantheae) that have a difficult delimitation

Recently, molecular analysis caused the South American Viguiera Kunth species to be transferred to Aldama La Llave. However, the circumscription has not been established for certain of the South American species, including Aldama filifolia (Sch. Bip. ex Baker) E. E. Schill. & Panero, A. linearifolia (Chodat) E. E. Schill. & Panero and A. trichophylla (Dusen) Magenta (comb. nov.), which had previously been treated as synonyms because of their high similarity. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the anatomy of the aerial organs, and the yield and chemical composition of the essential oils from these three species, to determine the differences among them and thereby assist in species distinction. The anatomical analysis identified characteristics unique to each species, which are primarily related to the position and occurrence of secretory structures. Histochemical analysis demonstrated that the glandular trichomes and the canals secrete lipophilic substances, which are characterised by the presence of essential oils. The analysis of these essential oils identified monoterpenes as their major constituent and allowed for the recognition of chemical markers for each species. The anatomical and chemical characteristics identified by the present study confirmed that the studied samples belong to three distinct taxa.

Effect of Echium oil compared with marine oils on lipid profile and inhibition of hepatic steatosis in LDLr knockout mice

Abstract Background In an effort to identify new alternatives for long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA) supplementation, the effect of three sources of omega 3 fatty acids (algae, fish and Echium oils) on lipid profile and inflammation biomarkers was evaluated in LDL receptor knockout mice. Methods The animals received a high fat diet and were supplemented by gavage with an emulsion containing water (CON), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 42.89%) from algae oil (ALG), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 19.97%) plus DHA (11.51%) from fish oil (FIS), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 26.75%) plus stearidonic acid (SDA, 11.13%) from Echium oil (ECH) for 4 weeks. Results Animals supplemented with Echium oil presented lower cholesterol total and triacylglycerol concentrations than control group (CON) and lower VLDL than all of the other groups, constituting the best lipoprotein profile observed in our study. Moreover, the Echium oil attenuated the hepatic steatosis caused by the high fat diet. However, in contrast to the marine oils, Echium oil did not affect the levels of transcription factors involved in lipid metabolism, such as Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor α (PPAR α) and Liver X Receptor α (LXR α), suggesting that it exerts its beneficial effects by a mechanism other than those observed to EPA and DHA. Echium oil also reduced N-6/N-3 FA ratio in hepatic tissue, which can have been responsible for the attenuation of steatosis hepatic observed in ECH group. None of the supplemented oils reduced the inflammation biomarkers. Conclusion Our results suggest that Echium oil represents an alternative as natural ingredient to be applied in functional foods to reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors.

In vitro trypanocidal evaluation of pinane derivatives from essential oils of ripe fruits from Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Anacardiaceae)

Essential oils of ripe fruits from Schinus terebinthifolius (Anacardiaceae), obtained using a pilot extractor and a Clevenger apparatus were chemically characterized. Due the high amount of (-)- α-pinene in both oils, this monoterpene was tested against the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, showing a moderate potential (IC50 63.56 µg/mL) when compared to benznidazole (IC50 43.14 µg/mL). Otherwise, (-)- α-pinene oxide did not showed anti-trypanosomal activity (IC50 > 400 µg/mL) while (-)-pinane showed an IC50 of 56.50 µg/mL. The obtained results indicated that the epoxydation of α-pinene results to the loss of the anti-parasitic activity while its hydrogenation product, contributed slightly to the increased activity.

Study of the antioxidant fraction in edible olive oils obtained from different technological systems and parameters

Questo lavoro di tesi è stato suddiviso in tre parti. L’argomento principale è stato lo “Studio della componente antiossidante di oli ottenuti da olive mediante l’utilizzo di diversi sistemi e parametri tecnologici”. E’ ben noto come la qualità ossidativa di un olio di oliva dipenda oltre che dalla sua composizione in acidi grassi, dalla presenza di composti caratterizzati da un elevata attività antiossidante, ovvero le sostanze fenoliche. I composti fenolici contribuiscono quindi in maniera preponderante alla shelf life dell’olio extravergine di oliva. Inoltre sono state riscontrate delle forti correlazione tra alcune di queste sostanze e gli attributi sensoriali positivi di amaro e piccante. E’ poi da sottolineare come il potere antiossidante dei composti fenolici degli oli vergini di oliva, sia stato negli ultimi anni oggetto di considerevole interesse, poiché correlato alla protezione da alcune patologie come ad esempio quelle vascolari, degenerative e tumorali. Il contenuto delle sostanze fenoliche negli oli di oliva dipende da diversi fattori: cultivar, metodo di coltivazione, grado di maturazione delle olive e ovviamente dalle operazioni tecnologiche poiché possono variare il quantitativo di questi composti estratto. Alla luce di quanto appena detto abbiamo valutato l’influenza dei fattori agronomici (metodi di agricoltura biologica, integrata e convenzionale) e tecnologici (riduzione della temperatura della materia prima, aggiunta di coadiuvanti in fase di frangitura e di gramolatura, confronto tra tre oli extravergini di oliva ottenuti mediante diversi sistemi tecnologici) sul contenuto in composti fenolici di oli edibili ottenuti da olive (paper 1-3-4). Oltre alle sostanze fenoliche, negli oli di oliva sono presenti altri composti caratterizzati da proprietà chimiche e nutrizionali, tra questi vi sono i fitosteroli, ovvero gli steroli tipici del mondo vegetale, che rappresentano la frazione dell’insaponificabile quantitativamente più importante dopo gli idrocarburi. La composizione quali-quantitativa degli steroli di un olio di oliva è una delle caratteristiche analitiche più importanti nella valutazione della sua genuinità; infatti la frazione sterolica è significativamente diversa in funzione dell’origine botanica e perciò viene utilizzata per distinguere tra di loro gli oli e le loro miscele. Il principale sterolo nell’olio di oliva è il β- sitosterolo, la presenza di questo composto in quantità inferiore al 90% è un indice approssimativo dell’aggiunta di un qualsiasi altro olio. Il β-sitosterolo è una sostanza importante dal punto di vista della salute, poiché si oppone all’assorbimento del colesterolo. Mentre in letteratura si trovano numerosi lavori relativi al potere antiossidante di una serie di composti presenti nell’olio vergine di oliva (i già citati polifenoli, ma anche carotenoidi e tocoferoli) e ricerche che dimostrano invece come altri composti possano promuovere l’ossidazione dei lipidi, per quanto riguarda il potere antiossidante degli steroli e dei 4- metilsteroli, vi sono ancora poche informazioni. Per questo è stata da noi valutata la composizione sterolica in oli extravergini di oliva ottenuti con diverse tecnologie di estrazione e l’influenza di questa sostanza sulla loro stabilità ossidativa (paper 2). E’ stato recentemente riportato in letteratura come lipidi cellulari evidenziati attraverso la spettroscopia di risonanza nucleare magnetica (NMR) rivestano una importanza strategica da un punto di vista funzionale e metabolico. Questi lipidi, da un lato un lato sono stati associati allo sviluppo di cellule neoplastiche maligne e alla morte cellulare, dall’altro sono risultati anche messaggeri di processi benigni quali l’attivazione e la proliferazione di un normale processo di crescita cellulare. Nell’ambito di questa ricerca è nata una collaborazione tra il Dipartimento di Biochimica “G. Moruzzi” ed il Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti dell’Università di Bologna. Infatti, il gruppo di lipochimica del Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti, a cui fa capo il Prof. Giovanni Lercker, da sempre si occupa dello studio delle frazioni lipidiche, mediante le principali tecniche cromatografiche. L’obiettivo di questa collaborazione è stato quello di caratterizzare la componente lipidica totale estratta dai tessuti renali umani sani e neoplastici, mediante l’utilizzo combinato di diverse tecniche analitiche: la risonanza magnetica nucleare (1H e 13C RMN), la cromatografia su strato sottile (TLC), la cromatografia liquida ad alta prestazione (HPLC) e la gas cromatografia (GC) (paper 5-6-7)

Quality and safety of oils and fats obtained as co-products or by-products of the food chain and destined to animal production

The aim of the first part of this thesis was to evaluate the effect of trans fatty acid- (TFA), contaminant, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)- and oxidation productenriched diets on the content of TFA and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers in meat and liver of both poultry and rabbit. The enriched feedings were prepared with preselected fatty co-and by-products that contained low and high levels of TFA (low, palm fatty acid distillate; high, hydrogenated palm fatty acid distillate), environmental contaminants (dioxins and PCBs) (two different fish oils), PAH (olive oil acid oils and pomace olive oil from chemical refining, for low and high levels) and oxidation products (sunflower-olive oil blend before and after frying), so as to obtain single feedings with three enrichment degrees (high, medium and low) of the compound of interest. This experimental set-up is a part of a large, collaborative European project (http://www.ub.edu/feedfat/), where other chemical and health parameters are assessed. Lipids were extracted, methylated with diazomethane, then transmethylated with 2N KOH/methanol and analyzed by GC and silver-ion TLC-GC. TFA and CLA were determined in the fats, the feedings, meat and liver of both poultry and rabbit. In general, the level of TFA and CLA in meat and liver mainly varied according to those originally found in the feeding fats. It must be pointed out, though, that TFA and CLA accumulation was different for the two animal species, as well as for the two types of tissues. The TFA composition of meat and liver changes according to the composition of the oils added to the feeds with some differences between species. Chicken meat with skin shows higher TFA content (2.6–5.4 fold) than rabbit meat, except for the “PAH” trial. Chicken liver shows higher TFA content (1.2–2.1 fold) than rabbit liver, except for the “TRANS” and “PAH” trials. In both chicken and rabbit meats, the TFA content was higher for the “TRANS” trial, followed by the “DIOXIN” trial. Slight differences were found on the “OXIDATION” and “PAH” trends in both types of meats. In both chicken and rabbit livers, the TFA content was higher for the “TRANS” trial, followed by those of the “PAH”, “DIOXIN” and “OXIDATION” trials. This trend, however, was not identical to that of feeds, where the TFA content varied as follows: “TRANS” > “DIOXIN” >“PAH” > “OXIDATION”. In chicken and rabbit meat samples, C18:1 TFA were the most abundant, followed by C18:2 TFA and C18:3 TFA, except for the “DIOXIN” trial where C18:3 TFA > C18:2 TFA. In chicken and rabbit liver samples of the “TRANS” and “OXIDATION” trials, C18:1 TFA were the most abundant, followed by C18:2 TFA and C18:3 TFA, whereas C18:3 TFA > C18:2 in the “DIOXIN” trial. Slight differences were found on the “PAH” trend in livers from both species. The second part of the thesis dealt with the study of lipid oxidation in washed turkey muscle added with different antioxidants. The evaluation on the oxidative stability of muscle foods found that oxidation could be measured by headspace solid phase microestraction (SPME) of hexanal and propanal. To make this method effective, an antioxidant system was added to stored muscle to stop the oxidative processes. An increase in ionic strength of the sample was also implemented to increase the concentration of aldehydes in the headspace. This method was found to be more sensitive than the commonly used thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) method. However, after antioxidants were added and oxidation was stopped, the concentration of aldehydes decreased. It was found that the decrease in aldehyde concentration was due to the binding of the aldehydes to muscle proteins, thus decreasing the volatility and making them less detectable.

Quantitative evaluation of household nutrition patterns: an econometric assessment of the UK 5-a-day impact on fruit and vegetable consumption

The present work provides an ex-post assessment of the UK 5-a-day information campaign where the positive effects of information on consumption levels are disentangled from the potentially conflicting price dynamics. A model-based estimate of the counterfactual (no-intervention) scenario is computed using data from the Expenditure and Food Survey between 2002 and 2006. For this purpose fruit and vegetable demand is modelled employing Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System (QUAIDS) specification with demographic effects and controlling for potential endogeneity of prices and total food expenditure.

Functional components and lipid quality assessment in vegetable foods: analytical and technological approaches

Lipids are important components that contribute very significantly to nutritional and technological quality of foods because they are the least stable macro-components in foods, due to high susceptibility to oxidation. When rancidity take place, it makes food unhealthy and unacceptable for consumers. Thus, the presence of antioxidants, naturally present of added to foods, is required to enhance shelf life of foods. Moreover, antioxidant like phenolic compounds play an important role in human health enhancing the functionality of foods. The aim of this PhD project was the study of lipid quality and lipid oxidation in different vegetable foods focusing on analytical and technological aspects in order to figure out the effects of lipid composition and bioactive compounds (phenolic compounds, omega-3 fatty acids and dietary fiber) addition on their shelf life. In addition, bioavailability and antioxidant effects of phenolic compounds in human and animals, respectively, were evaluated after consumption of vegetable foods. The first section of the work was focused on the evaluation of lipid quality impact on technological behaviour of vegetable foods. Because of that, cocoa butter with different melting point were evaluated by chromatographic techniques (GC, TLC) and the sample with the higher melting point showed the presence of fatty acids, triglycerides, 2-monoglycerides and FT-IR profile different from genuine cocoa butter, meaning an adding of foreign fat (lauric-fat) not allowed by the law. Looking at lipid quality of other vegetable foods, an accelerated shelf life test (OXITEST®), was used to evaluate of lipid stability to oxidation in tarallini snacks made up using different lipid matrices (sunflower oil, extravirgin olive oil and a blend of extravirgin olive oil and lard). The results showed a good ability of OXITEST® to discriminate between lipid unsaturation and different cooking times, without any samples fat extraction. In the second section, the role of bioactive compounds on cereal based food shelf life was studied in different bakeries by GC, spectrophotometric methods and capillary electrophoresis. It was examined the relationships between phenolic compounds, added with flour, and lipid oxidation of tarallini and frollini. Both products showed an increase in lipid oxidation during storage and antioxidant effects on lipid oxidation were not as expected. Furthermore, the influence of enrichment in polyunsaturated fatty acids on lipid oxidation of pasta was evaluated. The results proved that LC n-3 PUFA were not significantly implicated in the onset of oxidation in spaghetti stored under daylight and accelerated oxidation in a laboratory heater. The importance of phenolic compounds as antioxidant in humans and rats was also studied, by HPLC/MS in the latter section. For this purpose, apigenin and apigenin glycosides excretion was investigated in six women’s urine in a 24 hours study. After a single dose of steamed artichokes, both aglicone and glucuronide metabolites were recovered in 24 h urine. Moreover, the effect of whole grain durum wheat bread and whole grain Kamut® khorasan bread in rats were evaluated. Both cereals were good sources of antioxidants but Kamut® bread fed animals had a better response to stress than wheat durum fed, especially when a sourdough bread was supplied.

Physiological and structural aspects of fruit and vegetable mild processing

Over the past years fruit and vegetable industry has become interested in the application of both osmotic dehydration and vacuum impregnation as mild technologies because of their low temperature and energy requirements. Osmotic dehydration is a partial dewatering process by immersion of cellular tissue in hypertonic solution. The diffusion of water from the vegetable tissue to the solution is usually accompanied by the simultaneous solutes counter-diffusion into the tissue. Vacuum impregnation is a unit operation in which porous products are immersed in a solution and subjected to a two-steps pressure change. The first step (vacuum increase) consists of the reduction of the pressure in a solid-liquid system and the gas in the product pores is expanded, partially flowing out. When the atmospheric pressure is restored (second step), the residual gas in the pores compresses and the external liquid flows into the pores. This unit operation allows introducing specific solutes in the tissue, e.g. antioxidants, pH regulators, preservatives, cryoprotectancts. Fruit and vegetable interact dynamically with the environment and the present study attempts to enhance our understanding on the structural, physico-chemical and metabolic changes of plant tissues upon the application of technological processes (osmotic dehydration and vacuum impregnation), by following a multianalytical approach. Macro (low-frequency nuclear magnetic resonance), micro (light microscopy) and ultrastructural (transmission electron microscopy) measurements combined with textural and differential scanning calorimetry analysis allowed evaluating the effects of individual osmotic dehydration or vacuum impregnation processes on (i) the interaction between air and liquid in real plant tissues, (ii) the plant tissue water state and (iii) the cell compartments. Isothermal calorimetry, respiration and photosynthesis determinations led to investigate the metabolic changes upon the application of osmotic dehydration or vacuum impregnation. The proposed multianalytical approach should enable both better designs of processing technologies and estimations of their effects on tissue.

Analytical methods for evaluating the quality and the genuineness of olive oils

This Ph.D. thesis focuses on the investigation of some chemical and sensorial analytical parameters linked to the quality and purity of different categories of oils obtained by olives: extra virgin olive oils, both those that are sold in the large retail trade (supermarkets and discounts) and those directly collected at some Italian mills, and lower-quality oils (refined, lampante and “repaso”). Concurrently with the adoption of traditional and well-known analytical procedures such as gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography, I carried out a set-up of innovative, fast and environmentally-friend methods. For example, I developed some analytical approaches based on Fourier transform medium infrared spectroscopy (FT-MIR) and time domain reflectometry (TDR), coupled with a robust chemometric elaboration of the results. I investigated some other freshness and quality markers that are not included in official parameters (in Italian and European regulations): the adoption of such a full chemical and sensorial analytical plan allowed me to obtain interesting information about the degree of quality of the EVOOs, mostly within the Italian market. Here the range of quality of EVOOs resulted very wide, in terms of sensory attributes, price classes and chemical parameters. Thanks to the collaboration with other Italian and foreign research groups, I carried out several applicative studies, especially focusing on the shelf-life of oils obtained by olives and on the effects of thermal stresses on the quality of the products. I also studied some innovative technological treatments, such as the clarification by using inert gases, as an alternative to the traditional filtration. Moreover, during a three-and-a-half months research stay at the University of Applied Sciences in Zurich, I also carried out a study related to the application of statistical methods for the elaboration of sensory results, obtained thanks to the official Swiss Panel and to some consumer tests.

Valorization of pomaces from the mechanical extraction of virgin olive oils in dairy animal feeding

This research work is aimed at the valorization of two types of pomace deriving from the extra virgin olive oil mechanical extraction process, such as olive pomace and a new by-product named “paté”, in the livestock sector as important sources of antioxidants and unsaturated fatty acids. In the first research the suitability of dried stoned olive pomace as a dietary supplement for dairy buffaloes was evaluated. The effectiveness of this utilization in modifying fatty acid composition and improving the oxidative stability of buffalo milk and mozzarella cheese have been proven by means of the analysis of qualitative and quantitative parameters. In the second research the use of paté as a new by-product in dietary feed supplementation for dairy ewes, already fed with a source of unsaturated fatty acids such as extruded linseed, was studied in order to assess the effect of this combination on the dairy products obtained. The characterization of paté as a new by-product was also carried out, studying the optimal conditions of its stabilization and preservation at the same time. The main results, common to both researches, have been the detection and the characterization of hydrophilic phenols in the milk. The analytical detection of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol in the ewes’ milk fed with the paté and hydroxytyrosol in buffalo fed with pomace showed for the first time the presence in the milk of hydroxytyrosol, which is one of the most important bioactive compounds of the oil industry products; the transfer of these antioxidants and the proven improvement of the quality of milk fat could positively interact in the prevention of some human cardiovascular diseases and some tumours, increasing in this manner the quality of dairy products, also improving their shelf-life. These results also provide important information on the bioavailability of these phenolic compounds.

Export Supply Chain Organization and Food Safety and Quality Standards: a case study of the Moroccan Fruit and Vegetable Sector

Agri-food supply chains extend beyond national boundaries, partially facilitated by a policy environment that encourages more liberal international trade. Rising concentration within the downstream sector has driven a shift towards “buyer-driven” global value chains (GVCs) extending internationally with global sourcing and the emergence of multinational key economic players that compete with increase emphasis on product quality attributes. Agri-food systems are thus increasingly governed by a range of inter-related public and private standards, both of which are becoming a priori mandatory, especially in supply chains for high-value and quality-differentiated agri-food products and tend to strongly affect upstream agricultural practices, firms’ internal organization and strategic behaviour and to shape the food chain organization. Notably, increasing attention has been given to the impact of SPS measures on agri-food trade and notably on developing countries’ export performance. Food and agricultural trade is the vital link in the mutual dependency of the global trade system and developing countries. Hence, developing countries derive a substantial portion of their income from food and agricultural trade. In Morocco, fruit and vegetable (especially fresh) are the primary agricultural export. Because of the labor intensity, this sector (especially citrus and tomato) is particularly important in terms of income and employment generation, especially for the female laborers hired in the farms and packing houses. Hence, the emergence of agricultural and agrifood product safety issues and the subsequent tightening of market requirements have challenged mutual gains due to the lack of technical and financial capacities of most developing countries.

Quality control of virgin olive oils with regard to different storage and shipment conditions

Virgin olive oil(VOO) is a product characterized by high economic and nutritional values, because of its superior sensory characteristics and minor compounds (phenols and tocopherols) contents. Since the original quality of VOO may change during its storage, this study aimed to investigate the influence of different storage and shipment conditions on the quality of VOO, by studying different solutions such as filtration, dark storage and shipment inside insulated containers to protect it. Different analytical techniques were used to follow-up the quality changes during virgin olive oil storage and simulated shipments, in terms of basic quality parameters, sensory analysis and evaluation of minor components (phenolic compounds, diglycerides, volatile compounds). Four main research streams were presented in this PhD thesis: The results obtained from the first experimental section revealed that the application of filtration and/or clarification can decrease the unavoidable quality loss of the oil samples during storage, in comparison with unfiltered oil samples. The second section indicated that the virgin olive oil freshness, evaluated by diglycerides content, was mainly affected by the storage time and temperature. The third section revealed that fluctuation in temperature during storage may adversely affect the virgin olive oil quality, in terms of hydrolytic rancidity and oxidation quality. The fourth section showed that virgin olive oil shipped inside insulated containers showed lower hydrolytic and oxidation degradation than those without insulation cover. Overall, this PhD thesis highlighted that application of adequate treatment, such as filtration or clarification, in addition to a good protection against other external variables, such as temperature and light, will improve the stability of virgin olive oil during storage.

Estimation of the risks of thermal stress due to the microclimate for manual fruit and vegetable harvesters in central Italy

Agricultural workers are exposed to various risks, including chemical agents, noise, and many other factors. One of the most characteristic and least known risk factors is constituted by the microclimatic conditions in the different phases of work (in field, in greenhouse, etc). A typical condition is thermal stress due to high temperatures during harvesting operations in open fields or in greenhouses. In Italy, harvesting is carried out for many hours during the day, mainly in the summer, with temperatures often higher than 30 degrees C. According to ISO 7243, these conditions can be considered dangerous for workers' health. The aim of this study is to assess the risks of exposure to microclimatic conditions (heat) for fruit and vegetable harvesters in central Italy by applying methods established by international standards. In order to estimate the risk for workers, the air temperature, radiative temperature, and air speed were measured using instruments in conformity with ISO 7726. Thermodynamic parameters and two more subjective parameters, clothing and the metabolic heat production rate related to the worker's physical activity, were used to calculate the predicted heat strain (PHS) for the exposed workers in conformity with ISO 7933. Environmental and subjective parameters were also measured for greenhouse workers, according to ISO 7243, in order to calculate the wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT). The results show a slight risk for workers during manual harvesting in the field. On the other hand, the data collected in the greenhouses show that the risk for workers must not be underestimated. The results of the study show that, for manual harvesting work in climates similar to central Italy, it is essential to provide plenty of drinking water and acclimatization for the workers in order to reduce health risks. Moreover, the study emphasizes that the possible health risks for greenhouse workers increase from the month of April through July.