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La sintaxis de una lengua se halla motivada semántica y pragmáticamente. La dimensión pragmática establece qué formas lingüísticas -y sus significados- son más apropiadas para qué contexto. En este trabajo intentamos mostrar cómo el lenguaje es modelado por la cultura cuando lo pragmático es etnopragmático. Los sesgos en la frecuencia relativa de uso de los clíticos de tercera persona en distintas variedades del español americano constituyen un ámbito adecuado. La naturaleza deíctica de los clíticos del español hace que se pongan en juego al menos dos tipos de dimensión pragmática: la dimensión referencial y la dimensión relacional. El valor que cobra la referencia es, ciertamente, cultural, asignado por la comunidad. En efecto, es esperable que diferentes grupos culturales asignen diferentes valores a los mismos referentes y que estos valores culturales influyan en la conformación de los paradigmas de la lengua. Ejemplificaremos la propuesta mediante la observación de la expansión del empleo de le y la ausencia del clítico en el campo de los acusativos en el español guaranítico argentino y del uso categórico y variable de los clíticos respecto de algunos verbos en el español de bolivianos residentes en la Argentina

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Esta tesis doctoral se inscribe dentro de la Traductología, interdisciplina que estudia tanto los procesos implicados en el complejo fenómeno de la traducción como los productos discursivos en la lengua hacia la cual se traduce. Su objetivo general consiste en contribuir a la investigación sobre el macroproceso de traducción en el par de lenguas francés/español, y en especial sobre la producción discursiva puesto que la literatura especializada coincide en destacar que ésta es la fase menos conocida [Lederer, 2005, 126; Toury, 2004, 244, 245]. Nuestro trabajo explora la producción discursiva, limitándola a traducciones absolutas [Gouadec, 1989: 21-30] de textos pragmáticos [Delisle, 1984: 22], cuya función esencial es el pasaje integral de la información. Dentro de dos corpora del campo de la Bioética constituidos por textos originales en francés y sus traducciones al castellano, hemos considerado como hipótesis general que los productos discursivos resultantes de la traducción absoluta de textos pragmáticos francés/castellano, presentan transferencias sintáctico-discursivas gobernadas por el universal de interferencia. Es decir que el planteo rector es que la memoria lingüístico-discursiva en la fase de reexpresión está atravesada por el mecanismo de interferencia. Las hipótesis específicas que se desgranan de la principal indican que la producción discursiva resultante de la traducción de textos pragmáticos francés/castellano exhibe enunciados elípticos anómalos gobernados por el universal de interferencia del discurso de partida [francés] o del sistema de la lengua materna del traductor [castellano]. Nuestra investigación parte entonces de la lectura del texto traducido [TT] y lo compara con el texto original [TO]; esta comparación es parcial puesto que indaga sobre las anomalías de producción; es indirecta pues observa la relación cohesión-coherencia-sentido en el discurso de llegada a través de las anomalías, especialmente de los enunciados elípticos; por último, analiza las anomalías dentro de la teoría de la interferencia y de la teoría de la elipsis [Toury, 2004: 121-124]. Sobre estas bases, hemos generado un instrumento que estudia los binomios textuales seleccionados según las siguientes aproximaciones: la sintaxis de la lengua meta [tipo de elipsis, elemento elidido, construcción de la elipsis, recuperabilidad]; la sintaxis del discurso meta [cohesión-coherencia], la comparación del binomio TT-TO [análisis de la producción del segmento problema en TO; el análisis de la producción del segmento solución en TT; posible extensión de las consecuencias de la anomalía microestructural; verificación del principio traducir toda la información]; los mecanismos de producción [elevación de la frecuencia de uso de recursos o elementos; control lingüístico de la lengua-cultura meta; control lingüístico-discursivo]; el resultado [visibilidad de interferencia; fenómeno sintáctico visible; alcance discursivo; producción palimpséstica; entropía informativa]. La elaboración de este andamiaje analítico aplicado a nuestros corpora nos ha permitido avanzar en el conocimiento de los mecanismos que participan en la producción discursiva en traducción y creemos que puede aplicarse, con las modificaciones de cada caso, para la descripción y quizás explicación de otros factores lingüístico-discursivos presentes en los textos traducidos

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La adivinanza, forma lírica de comunicación, del arte de saber y entretener, destaca como un juego mental y verbal que ha perdurado durante años uniendo a la poesía con el ingenio. Su forma tradicional se basa en versos de arte menor, cuartetas octosilábicas, de rima asonante o consonante cruzada, y el uso del símil, la metáfora, la metonimia, la alegoría, la dilogía, la analogía, y el desglose lingüístico. Como forma, no se apega a los cánones sino que se trata de un género libre, que crea sus propias reglas. Como el refrán, pertenecen al conjunto de rimas, o textos que no se cantaban, sino que se decían. Sus características son: la brevedad, la autonomía, la rima, las aliteraciones y los paralelismos. Su estructuración tiene dos vías: la sintáctica y la retórica: ambas están envueltas en el ropaje de la semántica y convierten a las adivinanzas en un juego del lenguaje, una lección o castigo, un enigma y un auténtico deleite de la tradición lírica

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Este artículo presenta una discusión sobre algunas nociones que emplea la sintaxis actual del griego clásico. En primer lugar, expone el ámbito que ocupa la sintaxis en el marco de la lingüística y la filología. En segundo y tercer lugar, expone el concepto de enunciado y de sintagma aplicados a la sintaxis del griego clásico. En cuarto lugar, expone brevemente algunos criterios distribucionales empleados para identificar las funciones desempeñadas por los complementos en la oración. A continuación, se exponen los conceptos de papel semántico, noción relacional, función semántica, función sintáctica y función pragmática. La sección 7 resume la estructura de la oración y defiende la idea de que hay que distinguir una serie de niveles o capas en los que se alojan los complementos. El parágrafo final contiene una breve conclusión. El artículo se cierra con una lista de libros sobre sintaxis griega publicados desde 1991 hasta 2003.

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La sintaxis de una lengua se halla motivada semántica y pragmáticamente. La dimensión pragmática establece qué formas lingüísticas -y sus significados- son más apropiadas para qué contexto. En este trabajo intentamos mostrar cómo el lenguaje es modelado por la cultura cuando lo pragmático es etnopragmático. Los sesgos en la frecuencia relativa de uso de los clíticos de tercera persona en distintas variedades del español americano constituyen un ámbito adecuado. La naturaleza deíctica de los clíticos del español hace que se pongan en juego al menos dos tipos de dimensión pragmática: la dimensión referencial y la dimensión relacional. El valor que cobra la referencia es, ciertamente, cultural, asignado por la comunidad. En efecto, es esperable que diferentes grupos culturales asignen diferentes valores a los mismos referentes y que estos valores culturales influyan en la conformación de los paradigmas de la lengua. Ejemplificaremos la propuesta mediante la observación de la expansión del empleo de le y la ausencia del clítico en el campo de los acusativos en el español guaranítico argentino y del uso categórico y variable de los clíticos respecto de algunos verbos en el español de bolivianos residentes en la Argentina

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En trabajos anteriores (Romero, 2008a y b, Alabart Lago, L., P. Díaz y G. Herrera, 2012, Alabart Lago, L. y Herrera, G., 2013) se intentó mostrar que el mecanismo interpretativo que propone la TR podría resultar adecuado como uno de los sistemas externos (también interpretativos) postulados por la GG, más precisamente, el sistema llamado CI. La relación que intentamos establecer tendrá en cuenta lo siguiente como marco teórico: a) En TR se afirma que la interpretación de un enunciado se deriva de las estructuras sintácticas, y esta derivación se realiza "en paralelo" con la derivación de estructuras llevada a cabo por las operaciones del componente sintáctico. b) En las últimas propuestas de la GG, extensiones y revisiones del PM propuesto en Chomsky (1995) no solo se dejan de lado los niveles de representación internos SP y ES sino también se considera prescindible la interfaz FL (Chomsky, 2005). Las estructuras generadas se transfieren a los sistemas externos en cuanto rasgos formales de las Categorías Funcionales son valorados. Mantendremos la noción de que el sistema computacional es relativamente irrestricto y que sus operaciones son condicionadas solo por Atracción y las llamadas "condiciones de legibilidad" impuestas por los sistemas externos, fundamentalmente el Principio de Interpretación Completa (PIC). c) Tendremos en cuenta la propuesta de Leonetti y Escandell Vidal (2004), que sostiene que las CCFF de la GG pueden considerarse equivalentes a las Categoría Procedimentales propuestas por la TR. En este sentido consideraremos válida la afirmación de Chomsky (1998) acerca de que las CCFF centrales (C, T, v y D) tienen propiedades semánticas. d) Otro factor que tendremos en cuenta es la noción de fase en la derivación, considerándola correcta en los términos expuestos en Chomsky (2001 y 2005) y Gallego (2007 y 2009), con ciertas modificaciones. Nuestra hipótesis puede resumirse en lo siguiente: Las operaciones de extracción de inferencias propuestas por TR se aplican durante la derivación sintáctica independientemente de que se haya transferido o no una fase. Es más, esperamos poder demostrar que algunos mecanismos inferenciales imponen ciertas condiciones que afectan a la valoración de los rasgos de las CCFF. Pretendemos también intentar mostrar que además de los núcleos de fase reconocidos, C y v, debe considerarse fase a SD, porque contiene rasgos específicos de cuyo cotejo y valoración se desprende el valor que recibirán otros rasgos en el curso de la derivación. Con estos fundamentos esperamos poder elaborar una descripción de cómo interactúan ambos sistemas en la derivación de una oración y la asignación (casi simultánea) de significado

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En los estudios existentes sobre la Modalización (Kerbrat Orecchioni/Benveniste) se analizan ciertos adverbios (i.e: francamente) como portadores de actitud o evaluación del hablante respecto de un contenido proposicional proferido. En el presente trabajo, exploramos estos llamados "adverbios modalizadores" desde una perspectiva cognitiva que permite explicar los procesos interpretativos que se activan en la compresión de enunciados que contienen este tipo de ítems léxicos. Este enfoque nos permitiría dar cuenta de la existencia y el funcionamiento de adverbios de tres tipos: oracionales (cuyo alcance comprende únicamente al sintagma verbal), extra-oracionales (con alcance sobre todo el contenido proposicional) y de aquellos que presentan distribución doble

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La sintaxis de una lengua se halla motivada semántica y pragmáticamente. La dimensión pragmática establece qué formas lingüísticas -y sus significados- son más apropiadas para qué contexto. En este trabajo intentamos mostrar cómo el lenguaje es modelado por la cultura cuando lo pragmático es etnopragmático. Los sesgos en la frecuencia relativa de uso de los clíticos de tercera persona en distintas variedades del español americano constituyen un ámbito adecuado. La naturaleza deíctica de los clíticos del español hace que se pongan en juego al menos dos tipos de dimensión pragmática: la dimensión referencial y la dimensión relacional. El valor que cobra la referencia es, ciertamente, cultural, asignado por la comunidad. En efecto, es esperable que diferentes grupos culturales asignen diferentes valores a los mismos referentes y que estos valores culturales influyan en la conformación de los paradigmas de la lengua. Ejemplificaremos la propuesta mediante la observación de la expansión del empleo de le y la ausencia del clítico en el campo de los acusativos en el español guaranítico argentino y del uso categórico y variable de los clíticos respecto de algunos verbos en el español de bolivianos residentes en la Argentina

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Esta tesis doctoral se inscribe dentro de la Traductología, interdisciplina que estudia tanto los procesos implicados en el complejo fenómeno de la traducción como los productos discursivos en la lengua hacia la cual se traduce. Su objetivo general consiste en contribuir a la investigación sobre el macroproceso de traducción en el par de lenguas francés/español, y en especial sobre la producción discursiva puesto que la literatura especializada coincide en destacar que ésta es la fase menos conocida [Lederer, 2005, 126; Toury, 2004, 244, 245]. Nuestro trabajo explora la producción discursiva, limitándola a traducciones absolutas [Gouadec, 1989: 21-30] de textos pragmáticos [Delisle, 1984: 22], cuya función esencial es el pasaje integral de la información. Dentro de dos corpora del campo de la Bioética constituidos por textos originales en francés y sus traducciones al castellano, hemos considerado como hipótesis general que los productos discursivos resultantes de la traducción absoluta de textos pragmáticos francés/castellano, presentan transferencias sintáctico-discursivas gobernadas por el universal de interferencia. Es decir que el planteo rector es que la memoria lingüístico-discursiva en la fase de reexpresión está atravesada por el mecanismo de interferencia. Las hipótesis específicas que se desgranan de la principal indican que la producción discursiva resultante de la traducción de textos pragmáticos francés/castellano exhibe enunciados elípticos anómalos gobernados por el universal de interferencia del discurso de partida [francés] o del sistema de la lengua materna del traductor [castellano]. Nuestra investigación parte entonces de la lectura del texto traducido [TT] y lo compara con el texto original [TO]; esta comparación es parcial puesto que indaga sobre las anomalías de producción; es indirecta pues observa la relación cohesión-coherencia-sentido en el discurso de llegada a través de las anomalías, especialmente de los enunciados elípticos; por último, analiza las anomalías dentro de la teoría de la interferencia y de la teoría de la elipsis [Toury, 2004: 121-124]. Sobre estas bases, hemos generado un instrumento que estudia los binomios textuales seleccionados según las siguientes aproximaciones: la sintaxis de la lengua meta [tipo de elipsis, elemento elidido, construcción de la elipsis, recuperabilidad]; la sintaxis del discurso meta [cohesión-coherencia], la comparación del binomio TT-TO [análisis de la producción del segmento problema en TO; el análisis de la producción del segmento solución en TT; posible extensión de las consecuencias de la anomalía microestructural; verificación del principio traducir toda la información]; los mecanismos de producción [elevación de la frecuencia de uso de recursos o elementos; control lingüístico de la lengua-cultura meta; control lingüístico-discursivo]; el resultado [visibilidad de interferencia; fenómeno sintáctico visible; alcance discursivo; producción palimpséstica; entropía informativa]. La elaboración de este andamiaje analítico aplicado a nuestros corpora nos ha permitido avanzar en el conocimiento de los mecanismos que participan en la producción discursiva en traducción y creemos que puede aplicarse, con las modificaciones de cada caso, para la descripción y quizás explicación de otros factores lingüístico-discursivos presentes en los textos traducidos

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La adivinanza, forma lírica de comunicación, del arte de saber y entretener, destaca como un juego mental y verbal que ha perdurado durante años uniendo a la poesía con el ingenio. Su forma tradicional se basa en versos de arte menor, cuartetas octosilábicas, de rima asonante o consonante cruzada, y el uso del símil, la metáfora, la metonimia, la alegoría, la dilogía, la analogía, y el desglose lingüístico. Como forma, no se apega a los cánones sino que se trata de un género libre, que crea sus propias reglas. Como el refrán, pertenecen al conjunto de rimas, o textos que no se cantaban, sino que se decían. Sus características son: la brevedad, la autonomía, la rima, las aliteraciones y los paralelismos. Su estructuración tiene dos vías: la sintáctica y la retórica: ambas están envueltas en el ropaje de la semántica y convierten a las adivinanzas en un juego del lenguaje, una lección o castigo, un enigma y un auténtico deleite de la tradición lírica

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Este artículo presenta una discusión sobre algunas nociones que emplea la sintaxis actual del griego clásico. En primer lugar, expone el ámbito que ocupa la sintaxis en el marco de la lingüística y la filología. En segundo y tercer lugar, expone el concepto de enunciado y de sintagma aplicados a la sintaxis del griego clásico. En cuarto lugar, expone brevemente algunos criterios distribucionales empleados para identificar las funciones desempeñadas por los complementos en la oración. A continuación, se exponen los conceptos de papel semántico, noción relacional, función semántica, función sintáctica y función pragmática. La sección 7 resume la estructura de la oración y defiende la idea de que hay que distinguir una serie de niveles o capas en los que se alojan los complementos. El parágrafo final contiene una breve conclusión. El artículo se cierra con una lista de libros sobre sintaxis griega publicados desde 1991 hasta 2003.

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En los estudios existentes sobre la Modalización (Kerbrat Orecchioni/Benveniste) se analizan ciertos adverbios (i.e: francamente) como portadores de actitud o evaluación del hablante respecto de un contenido proposicional proferido. En el presente trabajo, exploramos estos llamados "adverbios modalizadores" desde una perspectiva cognitiva que permite explicar los procesos interpretativos que se activan en la compresión de enunciados que contienen este tipo de ítems léxicos. Este enfoque nos permitiría dar cuenta de la existencia y el funcionamiento de adverbios de tres tipos: oracionales (cuyo alcance comprende únicamente al sintagma verbal), extra-oracionales (con alcance sobre todo el contenido proposicional) y de aquellos que presentan distribución doble

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The Semantic Web is an extension of the traditional Web in which meaning of information is well defined, thus allowing a better interaction between people and computers. To accomplish its goals, mechanisms are required to make explicit the semantics of Web resources, to be automatically processed by software agents (this semantics being described by means of online ontologies). Nevertheless, issues arise caused by the semantic heterogeneity that naturally happens on the Web, namely redundancy and ambiguity. For tackling these issues, we present an approach to discover and represent, in a non-redundant way, the intended meaning of words in Web applications, while taking into account the (often unstructured) context in which they appear. To that end, we have developed novel ontology matching, clustering, and disambiguation techniques. Our work is intended to help bridge the gap between syntax and semantics for the Semantic Web construction

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Ontologies and taxonomies are widely used to organize concepts providing the basis for activities such as indexing, and as background knowledge for NLP tasks. As such, translation of these resources would prove useful to adapt these systems to new languages. However, we show that the nature of these resources is significantly different from the "free-text" paradigm used to train most statistical machine translation systems. In particular, we see significant differences in the linguistic nature of these resources and such resources have rich additional semantics. We demonstrate that as a result of these linguistic differences, standard SMT methods, in particular evaluation metrics, can produce poor performance. We then look to the task of leveraging these semantics for translation, which we approach in three ways: by adapting the translation system to the domain of the resource; by examining if semantics can help to predict the syntactic structure used in translation; and by evaluating if we can use existing translated taxonomies to disambiguate translations. We present some early results from these experiments, which shed light on the degree of success we may have with each approach

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OntoTag - A Linguistic and Ontological Annotation Model Suitable for the Semantic Web 1. INTRODUCTION. LINGUISTIC TOOLS AND ANNOTATIONS: THEIR LIGHTS AND SHADOWS Computational Linguistics is already a consolidated research area. It builds upon the results of other two major ones, namely Linguistics and Computer Science and Engineering, and it aims at developing computational models of human language (or natural language, as it is termed in this area). Possibly, its most well-known applications are the different tools developed so far for processing human language, such as machine translation systems and speech recognizers or dictation programs. These tools for processing human language are commonly referred to as linguistic tools. Apart from the examples mentioned above, there are also other types of linguistic tools that perhaps are not so well-known, but on which most of the other applications of Computational Linguistics are built. These other types of linguistic tools comprise POS taggers, natural language parsers and semantic taggers, amongst others. All of them can be termed linguistic annotation tools. Linguistic annotation tools are important assets. In fact, POS and semantic taggers (and, to a lesser extent, also natural language parsers) have become critical resources for the computer applications that process natural language. Hence, any computer application that has to analyse a text automatically and ‘intelligently’ will include at least a module for POS tagging. The more an application needs to ‘understand’ the meaning of the text it processes, the more linguistic tools and/or modules it will incorporate and integrate. However, linguistic annotation tools have still some limitations, which can be summarised as follows: 1. Normally, they perform annotations only at a certain linguistic level (that is, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, etc.). 2. They usually introduce a certain rate of errors and ambiguities when tagging. This error rate ranges from 10 percent up to 50 percent of the units annotated for unrestricted, general texts. 3. Their annotations are most frequently formulated in terms of an annotation schema designed and implemented ad hoc. A priori, it seems that the interoperation and the integration of several linguistic tools into an appropriate software architecture could most likely solve the limitations stated in (1). Besides, integrating several linguistic annotation tools and making them interoperate could also minimise the limitation stated in (2). Nevertheless, in the latter case, all these tools should produce annotations for a common level, which would have to be combined in order to correct their corresponding errors and inaccuracies. Yet, the limitation stated in (3) prevents both types of integration and interoperation from being easily achieved. In addition, most high-level annotation tools rely on other lower-level annotation tools and their outputs to generate their own ones. For example, sense-tagging tools (operating at the semantic level) often use POS taggers (operating at a lower level, i.e., the morphosyntactic) to identify the grammatical category of the word or lexical unit they are annotating. Accordingly, if a faulty or inaccurate low-level annotation tool is to be used by other higher-level one in its process, the errors and inaccuracies of the former should be minimised in advance. Otherwise, these errors and inaccuracies would be transferred to (and even magnified in) the annotations of the high-level annotation tool. Therefore, it would be quite useful to find a way to (i) correct or, at least, reduce the errors and the inaccuracies of lower-level linguistic tools; (ii) unify the annotation schemas of different linguistic annotation tools or, more generally speaking, make these tools (as well as their annotations) interoperate. Clearly, solving (i) and (ii) should ease the automatic annotation of web pages by means of linguistic tools, and their transformation into Semantic Web pages (Berners-Lee, Hendler and Lassila, 2001). Yet, as stated above, (ii) is a type of interoperability problem. There again, ontologies (Gruber, 1993; Borst, 1997) have been successfully applied thus far to solve several interoperability problems. Hence, ontologies should help solve also the problems and limitations of linguistic annotation tools aforementioned. Thus, to summarise, the main aim of the present work was to combine somehow these separated approaches, mechanisms and tools for annotation from Linguistics and Ontological Engineering (and the Semantic Web) in a sort of hybrid (linguistic and ontological) annotation model, suitable for both areas. This hybrid (semantic) annotation model should (a) benefit from the advances, models, techniques, mechanisms and tools of these two areas; (b) minimise (and even solve, when possible) some of the problems found in each of them; and (c) be suitable for the Semantic Web. The concrete goals that helped attain this aim are presented in the following section. 2. GOALS OF THE PRESENT WORK As mentioned above, the main goal of this work was to specify a hybrid (that is, linguistically-motivated and ontology-based) model of annotation suitable for the Semantic Web (i.e. it had to produce a semantic annotation of web page contents). This entailed that the tags included in the annotations of the model had to (1) represent linguistic concepts (or linguistic categories, as they are termed in ISO/DCR (2008)), in order for this model to be linguistically-motivated; (2) be ontological terms (i.e., use an ontological vocabulary), in order for the model to be ontology-based; and (3) be structured (linked) as a collection of ontology-based triples, as in the usual Semantic Web languages (namely RDF(S) and OWL), in order for the model to be considered suitable for the Semantic Web. Besides, to be useful for the Semantic Web, this model should provide a way to automate the annotation of web pages. As for the present work, this requirement involved reusing the linguistic annotation tools purchased by the OEG research group (http://www.oeg-upm.net), but solving beforehand (or, at least, minimising) some of their limitations. Therefore, this model had to minimise these limitations by means of the integration of several linguistic annotation tools into a common architecture. Since this integration required the interoperation of tools and their annotations, ontologies were proposed as the main technological component to make them effectively interoperate. From the very beginning, it seemed that the formalisation of the elements and the knowledge underlying linguistic annotations within an appropriate set of ontologies would be a great step forward towards the formulation of such a model (henceforth referred to as OntoTag). Obviously, first, to combine the results of the linguistic annotation tools that operated at the same level, their annotation schemas had to be unified (or, preferably, standardised) in advance. This entailed the unification (id. standardisation) of their tags (both their representation and their meaning), and their format or syntax. Second, to merge the results of the linguistic annotation tools operating at different levels, their respective annotation schemas had to be (a) made interoperable and (b) integrated. And third, in order for the resulting annotations to suit the Semantic Web, they had to be specified by means of an ontology-based vocabulary, and structured by means of ontology-based triples, as hinted above. Therefore, a new annotation scheme had to be devised, based both on ontologies and on this type of triples, which allowed for the combination and the integration of the annotations of any set of linguistic annotation tools. This annotation scheme was considered a fundamental part of the model proposed here, and its development was, accordingly, another major objective of the present work. All these goals, aims and objectives could be re-stated more clearly as follows: Goal 1: Development of a set of ontologies for the formalisation of the linguistic knowledge relating linguistic annotation. Sub-goal 1.1: Ontological formalisation of the EAGLES (1996a; 1996b) de facto standards for morphosyntactic and syntactic annotation, in a way that helps respect the triple structure recommended for annotations in these works (which is isomorphic to the triple structures used in the context of the Semantic Web). Sub-goal 1.2: Incorporation into this preliminary ontological formalisation of other existing standards and standard proposals relating the levels mentioned above, such as those currently under development within ISO/TC 37 (the ISO Technical Committee dealing with Terminology, which deals also with linguistic resources and annotations). Sub-goal 1.3: Generalisation and extension of the recommendations in EAGLES (1996a; 1996b) and ISO/TC 37 to the semantic level, for which no ISO/TC 37 standards have been developed yet. Sub-goal 1.4: Ontological formalisation of the generalisations and/or extensions obtained in the previous sub-goal as generalisations and/or extensions of the corresponding ontology (or ontologies). Sub-goal 1.5: Ontological formalisation of the knowledge required to link, combine and unite the knowledge represented in the previously developed ontology (or ontologies). Goal 2: Development of OntoTag’s annotation scheme, a standard-based abstract scheme for the hybrid (linguistically-motivated and ontological-based) annotation of texts. Sub-goal 2.1: Development of the standard-based morphosyntactic annotation level of OntoTag’s scheme. This level should include, and possibly extend, the recommendations of EAGLES (1996a) and also the recommendations included in the ISO/MAF (2008) standard draft. Sub-goal 2.2: Development of the standard-based syntactic annotation level of the hybrid abstract scheme. This level should include, and possibly extend, the recommendations of EAGLES (1996b) and the ISO/SynAF (2010) standard draft. Sub-goal 2.3: Development of the standard-based semantic annotation level of OntoTag’s (abstract) scheme. Sub-goal 2.4: Development of the mechanisms for a convenient integration of the three annotation levels already mentioned. These mechanisms should take into account the recommendations included in the ISO/LAF (2009) standard draft. Goal 3: Design of OntoTag’s (abstract) annotation architecture, an abstract architecture for the hybrid (semantic) annotation of texts (i) that facilitates the integration and interoperation of different linguistic annotation tools, and (ii) whose results comply with OntoTag’s annotation scheme. Sub-goal 3.1: Specification of the decanting processes that allow for the classification and separation, according to their corresponding levels, of the results of the linguistic tools annotating at several different levels. Sub-goal 3.2: Specification of the standardisation processes that allow (a) complying with the standardisation requirements of OntoTag’s annotation scheme, as well as (b) combining the results of those linguistic tools that share some level of annotation. Sub-goal 3.3: Specification of the merging processes that allow for the combination of the output annotations and the interoperation of those linguistic tools that share some level of annotation. Sub-goal 3.4: Specification of the merge processes that allow for the integration of the results and the interoperation of those tools performing their annotations at different levels. Goal 4: Generation of OntoTagger’s schema, a concrete instance of OntoTag’s abstract scheme for a concrete set of linguistic annotations. These linguistic annotations result from the tools and the resources available in the research group, namely • Bitext’s DataLexica (http://www.bitext.com/EN/datalexica.asp), • LACELL’s (POS) tagger (http://www.um.es/grupos/grupo-lacell/quees.php), • Connexor’s FDG (http://www.connexor.eu/technology/machinese/glossary/fdg/), and • EuroWordNet (Vossen et al., 1998). This schema should help evaluate OntoTag’s underlying hypotheses, stated below. Consequently, it should implement, at least, those levels of the abstract scheme dealing with the annotations of the set of tools considered in this implementation. This includes the morphosyntactic, the syntactic and the semantic levels. Goal 5: Implementation of OntoTagger’s configuration, a concrete instance of OntoTag’s abstract architecture for this set of linguistic tools and annotations. This configuration (1) had to use the schema generated in the previous goal; and (2) should help support or refute the hypotheses of this work as well (see the next section). Sub-goal 5.1: Implementation of the decanting processes that facilitate the classification and separation of the results of those linguistic resources that provide annotations at several different levels (on the one hand, LACELL’s tagger operates at the morphosyntactic level and, minimally, also at the semantic level; on the other hand, FDG operates at the morphosyntactic and the syntactic levels and, minimally, at the semantic level as well). Sub-goal 5.2: Implementation of the standardisation processes that allow (i) specifying the results of those linguistic tools that share some level of annotation according to the requirements of OntoTagger’s schema, as well as (ii) combining these shared level results. In particular, all the tools selected perform morphosyntactic annotations and they had to be conveniently combined by means of these processes. Sub-goal 5.3: Implementation of the merging processes that allow for the combination (and possibly the improvement) of the annotations and the interoperation of the tools that share some level of annotation (in particular, those relating the morphosyntactic level, as in the previous sub-goal). Sub-goal 5.4: Implementation of the merging processes that allow for the integration of the different standardised and combined annotations aforementioned, relating all the levels considered. Sub-goal 5.5: Improvement of the semantic level of this configuration by adding a named entity recognition, (sub-)classification and annotation subsystem, which also uses the named entities annotated to populate a domain ontology, in order to provide a concrete application of the present work in the two areas involved (the Semantic Web and Corpus Linguistics). 3. MAIN RESULTS: ASSESSMENT OF ONTOTAG’S UNDERLYING HYPOTHESES The model developed in the present thesis tries to shed some light on (i) whether linguistic annotation tools can effectively interoperate; (ii) whether their results can be combined and integrated; and, if they can, (iii) how they can, respectively, interoperate and be combined and integrated. Accordingly, several hypotheses had to be supported (or rejected) by the development of the OntoTag model and OntoTagger (its implementation). The hypotheses underlying OntoTag are surveyed below. Only one of the hypotheses (H.6) was rejected; the other five could be confirmed. H.1 The annotations of different levels (or layers) can be integrated into a sort of overall, comprehensive, multilayer and multilevel annotation, so that their elements can complement and refer to each other. • CONFIRMED by the development of: o OntoTag’s annotation scheme, o OntoTag’s annotation architecture, o OntoTagger’s (XML, RDF, OWL) annotation schemas, o OntoTagger’s configuration. H.2 Tool-dependent annotations can be mapped onto a sort of tool-independent annotations and, thus, can be standardised. • CONFIRMED by means of the standardisation phase incorporated into OntoTag and OntoTagger for the annotations yielded by the tools. H.3 Standardisation should ease: H.3.1: The interoperation of linguistic tools. H.3.2: The comparison, combination (at the same level and layer) and integration (at different levels or layers) of annotations. • H.3 was CONFIRMED by means of the development of OntoTagger’s ontology-based configuration: o Interoperation, comparison, combination and integration of the annotations of three different linguistic tools (Connexor’s FDG, Bitext’s DataLexica and LACELL’s tagger); o Integration of EuroWordNet-based, domain-ontology-based and named entity annotations at the semantic level. o Integration of morphosyntactic, syntactic and semantic annotations. H.4 Ontologies and Semantic Web technologies (can) play a crucial role in the standardisation of linguistic annotations, by providing consensual vocabularies and standardised formats for annotation (e.g., RDF triples). • CONFIRMED by means of the development of OntoTagger’s RDF-triple-based annotation schemas. H.5 The rate of errors introduced by a linguistic tool at a given level, when annotating, can be reduced automatically by contrasting and combining its results with the ones coming from other tools, operating at the same level. However, these other tools might be built following a different technological (stochastic vs. rule-based, for example) or theoretical (dependency vs. HPS-grammar-based, for instance) approach. • CONFIRMED by the results yielded by the evaluation of OntoTagger. H.6 Each linguistic level can be managed and annotated independently. • REJECTED: OntoTagger’s experiments and the dependencies observed among the morphosyntactic annotations, and between them and the syntactic annotations. In fact, Hypothesis H.6 was already rejected when OntoTag’s ontologies were developed. We observed then that several linguistic units stand on an interface between levels, belonging thereby to both of them (such as morphosyntactic units, which belong to both the morphological level and the syntactic level). Therefore, the annotations of these levels overlap and cannot be handled independently when merged into a unique multileveled annotation. 4. OTHER MAIN RESULTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS First, interoperability is a hot topic for both the linguistic annotation community and the whole Computer Science field. The specification (and implementation) of OntoTag’s architecture for the combination and integration of linguistic (annotation) tools and annotations by means of ontologies shows a way to make these different linguistic annotation tools and annotations interoperate in practice. Second, as mentioned above, the elements involved in linguistic annotation were formalised in a set (or network) of ontologies (OntoTag’s linguistic ontologies). • On the one hand, OntoTag’s network of ontologies consists of − The Linguistic Unit Ontology (LUO), which includes a mostly hierarchical formalisation of the different types of linguistic elements (i.e., units) identifiable in a written text; − The Linguistic Attribute Ontology (LAO), which includes also a mostly hierarchical formalisation of the different types of features that characterise the linguistic units included in the LUO; − The Linguistic Value Ontology (LVO), which includes the corresponding formalisation of the different values that the attributes in the LAO can take; − The OIO (OntoTag’s Integration Ontology), which  Includes the knowledge required to link, combine and unite the knowledge represented in the LUO, the LAO and the LVO;  Can be viewed as a knowledge representation ontology that describes the most elementary vocabulary used in the area of annotation. • On the other hand, OntoTag’s ontologies incorporate the knowledge included in the different standards and recommendations for linguistic annotation released so far, such as those developed within the EAGLES and the SIMPLE European projects or by the ISO/TC 37 committee: − As far as morphosyntactic annotations are concerned, OntoTag’s ontologies formalise the terms in the EAGLES (1996a) recommendations and their corresponding terms within the ISO Morphosyntactic Annotation Framework (ISO/MAF, 2008) standard; − As for syntactic annotations, OntoTag’s ontologies incorporate the terms in the EAGLES (1996b) recommendations and their corresponding terms within the ISO Syntactic Annotation Framework (ISO/SynAF, 2010) standard draft; − Regarding semantic annotations, OntoTag’s ontologies generalise and extend the recommendations in EAGLES (1996a; 1996b) and, since no stable standards or standard drafts have been released for semantic annotation by ISO/TC 37 yet, they incorporate the terms in SIMPLE (2000) instead; − The terms coming from all these recommendations and standards were supplemented by those within the ISO Data Category Registry (ISO/DCR, 2008) and also of the ISO Linguistic Annotation Framework (ISO/LAF, 2009) standard draft when developing OntoTag’s ontologies. Third, we showed that the combination of the results of tools annotating at the same level can yield better results (both in precision and in recall) than each tool separately. In particular, 1. OntoTagger clearly outperformed two of the tools integrated into its configuration, namely DataLexica and FDG in all the combination sub-phases in which they overlapped (i.e. POS tagging, lemma annotation and morphological feature annotation). As far as the remaining tool is concerned, i.e. LACELL’s tagger, it was also outperformed by OntoTagger in POS tagging and lemma annotation, and it did not behave better than OntoTagger in the morphological feature annotation layer. 2. As an immediate result, this implies that a) This type of combination architecture configurations can be applied in order to improve significantly the accuracy of linguistic annotations; and b) Concerning the morphosyntactic level, this could be regarded as a way of constructing more robust and more accurate POS tagging systems. Fourth, Semantic Web annotations are usually performed by humans or else by machine learning systems. Both of them leave much to be desired: the former, with respect to their annotation rate; the latter, with respect to their (average) precision and recall. In this work, we showed how linguistic tools can be wrapped in order to annotate automatically Semantic Web pages using ontologies. This entails their fast, robust and accurate semantic annotation. As a way of example, as mentioned in Sub-goal 5.5, we developed a particular OntoTagger module for the recognition, classification and labelling of named entities, according to the MUC and ACE tagsets (Chinchor, 1997; Doddington et al., 2004). These tagsets were further specified by means of a domain ontology, namely the Cinema Named Entities Ontology (CNEO). This module was applied to the automatic annotation of ten different web pages containing cinema reviews (that is, around 5000 words). In addition, the named entities annotated with this module were also labelled as instances (or individuals) of the classes included in the CNEO and, then, were used to populate this domain ontology. • The statistical results obtained from the evaluation of this particular module of OntoTagger can be summarised as follows. On the one hand, as far as recall (R) is concerned, (R.1) the lowest value was 76,40% (for file 7); (R.2) the highest value was 97, 50% (for file 3); and (R.3) the average value was 88,73%. On the other hand, as far as the precision rate (P) is concerned, (P.1) its minimum was 93,75% (for file 4); (R.2) its maximum was 100% (for files 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10); and (R.3) its average value was 98,99%. • These results, which apply to the tasks of named entity annotation and ontology population, are extraordinary good for both of them. They can be explained on the basis of the high accuracy of the annotations provided by OntoTagger at the lower levels (mainly at the morphosyntactic level). However, they should be conveniently qualified, since they might be too domain- and/or language-dependent. It should be further experimented how our approach works in a different domain or a different language, such as French, English, or German. • In any case, the results of this application of Human Language Technologies to Ontology Population (and, accordingly, to Ontological Engineering) seem very promising and encouraging in order for these two areas to collaborate and complement each other in the area of semantic annotation. Fifth, as shown in the State of the Art of this work, there are different approaches and models for the semantic annotation of texts, but all of them focus on a particular view of the semantic level. Clearly, all these approaches and models should be integrated in order to bear a coherent and joint semantic annotation level. OntoTag shows how (i) these semantic annotation layers could be integrated together; and (ii) they could be integrated with the annotations associated to other annotation levels. Sixth, we identified some recommendations, best practices and lessons learned for annotation standardisation, interoperation and merge. They show how standardisation (via ontologies, in this case) enables the combination, integration and interoperation of different linguistic tools and their annotations into a multilayered (or multileveled) linguistic annotation, which is one of the hot topics in the area of Linguistic Annotation. And last but not least, OntoTag’s annotation scheme and OntoTagger’s annotation schemas show a way to formalise and annotate coherently and uniformly the different units and features associated to the different levels and layers of linguistic annotation. This is a great scientific step ahead towards the global standardisation of this area, which is the aim of ISO/TC 37 (in particular, Subcommittee 4, dealing with the standardisation of linguistic annotations and resources).