The Evolving Nature of Small-Scale Forestry in Australia

Two forms of small-scale forestry are developing in Australia, each with different impacts on rural communities. One is based on growing short-rotation Eucalyptus globulus (blue gum) for pulp and the other on production of higher-value products from longer-rotation native hard-woods. Several impediments exist to further development of small-scale forestry, including the lack of a small-scale forestry culture, concerns over harvest rights, lack of market development, the long wait for returns, and satisfaction with current land uses. Nevertheless, the rapid increase in farm woodlot establishment in the past five years has paralleled the strong increase in the private industrial plantation estate. As markets develop and hindrances are overcome, landholders not previously interested in small-scale forestry may consider ita worthwhile land use.

Magnetosomal matrix: ultrafine structure may template biomineralization of magnetosomes

The organic matrix surrounding bullet-shaped, cubo-octahedral, D-shaped, irregular arrowhead-shaped, and truncated hexa-octahedral magnetosomes was analysed in a variety of uncultured magnetotactic bacteria. The matrix was examined using low- (80 kV) and intermediate- (400 kV) voltage TEM. It encapsulated magnetosomes in dehydrated cells, ultraviolet-B-irradiated dehydrated cells and stained resin-embedded fixed cells, so the apparent structure of the matrix does not appear to be an artefact of specimen preparation. High-resolution images revealed lattice fringes in the matrix surrounding magnetite and greigite magnetosomes that were aligned with lattice fringes in the encapsulated magnetosomes. In all except one case, the lattice fringes had widths equal to or twice the width of the corresponding lattice fringes in the magnetosomes. The lattice fringes in the matrix were aligned with the {311}, {220}, {331}, {111} and {391} related lattice planes of magnetite and the {222} lattice plane of greigite. An unidentified material, possibly an iron hydroxide, was detected in two immature magnetosomes containing magnetite. The unidentified phase had a structure similar to that of the matrix as it contained {311}, {220} and {111} lattice fringes, which indicates that the matrix acts as a template for the spatially controlled biomineralization of the unidentified phase, which itself transforms into magnetite. The unidentified phase was thus called pre-magnetite. The presence of the magnetosomal matrix explains all of the five properties of the biosignature of the magnetosomal chain proposed previously by Friedmann et al. and supports their claim that some of the magnetite particles in the carbonate globules in the Martian meteorite ALH84001 are biogenic. Two new morphologies of magnetite magnetosomes are also reported here (i.e. tooth-shaped and hexa-octahedral magnetosomes). Tooth-shaped magnetite magnetosomes elongated in the [110] direction are reported, and are distinct from arrowhead-shaped and bullet-shaped magnetosomes. Elongation of magnetite magnetosomes in the [110] direction has not been reported previously. A Martian hexa-octahedral magnetite particle was previously characterized by Thomas-Keptra et al. and compared with truncated hexa-octahedral magnetite magnetosomes. Hexa-octahedral magnetite magnetosomes with the same morphology and similar sizes and axial ratios as those reported by Thomas-Keptra et al. are characterized here. These observations support their claim that ALH84001 contains evidence for a past Martian biota.

Participatory approach for the identification of dairy industry needs in the design of research, development and extension actions: Australian and Brazilian case studies

In both Australia and Brazil there are rapid changes occurring in the macroenvironment of the dairy industry. These changes are sometimes not noticed in the microenvironment of the farm, due to the labour-intensive nature of family farms, and the traditionally weak links between production and marketing. Trends in the external environment need to be discussed in a cooperative framework, to plan integrated actions for the dairy community as a whole and to demand actions from research, development and extension (R, D & E). This paper reviews the evolution of R, D & E in terms of paradigms and approaches, the present strategies used to identify dairy industry needs in Australia and Brazil, and presents a participatory strategy to design R, D & E actions for both countries. The strategy incorporates an integration of the opinions of key industry actors ( defined as members of the dairy and associated communities), especially farm suppliers ( input market), farmers, R, D & E people, milk processors and credit providers. The strategy also uses case studies with farm stays, purposive sampling, snowball interviewing techniques, semi-structured interviews, content analysis, focus group meetings, and feedback analysis, to refine the priorities for R, D & E actions in the region.

International evaluation of current and future requirements for environmental engineering education

The field of environmental engineering is developing as a result of changing environmental requirements. In response, environmental engineering education (E3) needs to ensure that it provides students with the necessary tools to address these challenges. In this paper the current status and future development of E3 is evaluated based on a questionnaire sent to universities and potential employers of E3 graduates. With increasing demands on environmental quality, the complexity of environmental engineering problems to be solved can be expected to increase. To find solutions environmental engineers will need to work in interdisciplinary teams. Based on the questionnaire there was a broad agreement that the best way to prepare students for these future challenges is to provide them with a fundamental education in basic sciences and related engineering fields. Many exciting developments in the environmental engineering profession will be located at the interface between engineering, science, and society. Aspects of all three areas need to be included in E3 and the student needs to be exposed to the tensions associated with linking the three.

Impact of premorbid undernutrition on outcome in stroke patients

Background and Purpose - To assess the prevalence of premorbid undernutrition and its impact on outcomes 1 month after stroke. Methods - The study recruited from consecutive stroke admissions during a 10-month period. Premorbid nutritional status ( using the subjective global assessment [SGA]), premorbid functioning ( modified Rankin scale [MRS]), and stroke severity ( National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale [NIHSS] score) were assessed at admission. The associations between premorbid nutritional status, poor outcome ( defined as MRS greater than or equal to 3), and mortality were examined before and after adjustment for confounding variables, including age, gender, stroke risk factors, stroke severity, and admission serum albumin. Results - Thirty of 185 patients were assessed as having undernutrition at admission. Significant unadjusted associations were observed between undernutrition and poor outcome (odds ratio [OR], 3.4; 95% CI, 1.3 to 8.7; P = 0.01), and mortality (OR, 3.1, 95% CI, 1.3 to 7.7; P = 0.02) at 1 month. NIHSS, age, and premorbid MRS were also significantly associated with poor outcomes. After adjustment for these factors, the effect size of associations remained important but not significant ( poor outcome: OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 0.7 to 9.0, P = 0.18; mortality: OR, 3.2; 95% CI, 1.0 to 10.4, P = 0.05). Conclusions - Premorbid undernutrition, as assessed using the SGA, appears to be an independent predictor of poor stroke outcome. Stroke prevention strategies should target undernutrition in the population at risk for stroke to improve outcomes.

The performance of South African English first language child speakers on a "low linguistically loaded" central auditory processing test protocol

The lack of standardized tests of central auditory processing disorder (CAPD) in South Africa (SA) led to the formation of a SA CAPD Taskforce, and the interim development of a "low linguistically loaded" CAPD test protocol using test recordings from the 'Tonal and Speech Materials for Auditory Perceptual Assessment Disc 2.0'. This study inferentially compared the performance of 16 SA English first, and 16 SA English second, language adult speakers on this test protocol, and descriptively compared their performances to previously published American normative data. Comparisons between the SA English first and second language speakers showed a poorer right ear performance (p < .05) by the second language speakers on the two-pair dichotic digits test only. Equivalent performances (p < .05) were observed on the left ear performance on the two pair dichotic digits test, and the frequency patterns test, the duration patterns test, the low-pass filtered speech test, the 45% time compressed speech test, the speech masking level difference test, and the consonant vowel consonant (CVC) binaural fusion test. Comparisons between the SA English and the American normative data showed many large differences (up to 37.1% with respect to predicted pass criteria as calculated by mean-2SD cutoffs), with the SA English speakers performing both better and worse depending on the test involved. As a result, the American normative data was not considered appropriate for immediate use as normative data in SA. Instead, the preliminary data provided in this study was recommended as interim normative data for both SA English first and second language adult speakers, until larger scale SA normative data can be obtained.

Association between chronic fatigue syndrome and the corticosteroid-binding globulin gene ALA SER224 polymorphism

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is characterized by idiopathic fatigue of greater than 6 months' duration with postexertional exacerbation and many other symptoms. A trend toward relative hypocortisolism is described in CFS. Twin and family studies indicate a substantial genetic etiologic component to CFS. Recently, severe corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) gene mutations have been associated with CFS in isolated kindreds. Human leukocyte elastase, an enzyme important in CBG catabolism at inflammatory sites, is reported to be elevated in CFS. We hypothesized that CBG gene polymorphisms may act as a genetic risk factor for CFS. A total of 248 patients with CFS defined by Centers for Disease Control criteria, and 248 controls were recruited. Sequencing and restriction enzyme testing of the CBG gene coding region allowed detection of severe CBG gene mutations and a common exon 3 polymorphism (c.825G --> T, Ala-Ser(224)). Plasma CBG levels were measured in 125 CFS patients and 198 controls by radioimmunoassay. Total and free (calculated and measured) cortisol levels were ascertained in single samples between 8-10 a.m. The age of onset (mid 30s) and gender ratio (2.2:1, female:male) of the patients were similar to those reported in U.S. epidemiologic studies. A trend toward a preponderance of serine(224) homozygosity among the CFS patients was noted, compared with controls (chi(2) = 5.31, P = 0.07). Immunoreactive-CBG (IR-CBG) levels were higher in Serine/Alanine (Ser/Ala) than Ala/Ala subjects and higher again in Ser/Ser subjects, this effect was strongest in controls; Ser/Ser: 46.1 +/- 1.8 (n = 31, P = 0.03) vs. Ser/Ala: 42.4 +/- 1.0 (n = 56, P = 0.05) vs. Ala/Ala: 40.8 +/- 1.7 mug/mL (n = 21). Despite higher CBG levels, there was a nonsignificant trend toward lower total and free plasma cortisol in serine allele positive patients, total cortisol: Ser/Ser: 13.3 +/- 1.4 (n = 34) vs. Ser/Ala: 14.0 +/- 0.7 (n = 66) vs. Ala/Ala: 15.4 +/- 1.0 (n = 23). Homozygosity for the serine allele of the CBG gene may predispose to CFS, perhaps due to an effect on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function related to altered CBG-cortisol transport function or immune-cortisol interactions.

Factors affecting akinete differentiation in Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Nostocals, Cyanobacteria)

1. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii is a potentially toxic freshwater cyanobacterium which can produce akinetes (reproductive spores) that on germinating can contribute to future populations. To further understand factors controlling the formation of these specialised cells, the effects of diurnal temperature fluctuations (magnitude and frequency), in combination with different light intensities and phosphorus concentrations were investigated under laboratory conditions. 2. Akinete differentiation was affected by the frequency of temperature fluctuations. Maximum akinete concentrations were observed in cultures that experienced multiple diurnal temperature fluctuations. 3. Akinete concentrations increased with increasing magnitude of temperature fluctuation. A maximum akinete concentration was achieved under multiple diurnal temperature fluctuations with a magnitude of 10degreesC (25degreesC to 15degreesC). 4. A fourfold increase in light intensity (25-100 mumol m(-2) s(-1)) resulted in an approximate 14-fold increase in akinete concentration. 5. High filterable reactive phosphorus (FRP) concentrations (> 70 mug L-1) in the medium, combined with a multiple diurnal temperature fluctuation of 10degreesC, supported the development of the highest akinete concentration.

Distribution of calcium phosphate in the exoskeleton of larval Exeretonevra angustifrons Hardy (Diptera : Xylophagidae)

Distribution and organisation of the mineral, amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), has been investigated in the exoskeleton of the xylophagid fly larva Exeretonevra angustifrons Hardy. While head capsule and anal plate are smooth with a thin epicuticle, the epicuticle of the body is thicker and shows unusual micro-architecture comprised of minute hemispherical (dome-shaped) protrusions. Electron microprobe analysis and energy dispersive spectroscopy revealed heterogeneity of mineral elements across body cuticle and a concentration of ACP in the epicuticle, especially associated with the hemispherical structures. Further imaging and analysis showed the bulk of the ACP to be present in nano-sized granules. It is hypothesised that the specific distribution of ACP may enhance cuticular hardness or durability without reducing flexibility. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Quantification of the magnification and distortion effects of a pediatric flexible video-bronchoscope

Background: Flexible video bronchoscopes, in particular the Olympus BF Type 3C160, are commonly used in pediatric respiratory medicine. There is no data on the magnification and distortion effects of these bronchoscopes yet important clinical decisions are made from the images. The aim of this study was to systematically describe the magnification and distortion of flexible bronchoscope images taken at various distances from the object. Methods: Using images of known objects and processing these by digital video and computer programs both magnification and distortion scales were derived. Results: Magnification changes as a linear function between 100 mm ( x 1) and 10 mm ( x 9.55) and then as an exponential function between 10 mm and 3 mm ( x 40) from the object. Magnification depends on the axis of orientation of the object to the optic axis or geometrical axis of the bronchoscope. Magnification also varies across the field of view with the central magnification being 39% greater than at the periphery of the field of view at 15 mm from the object. However, in the paediatric situation the diameter of the orifices is usually less than 10 mm and thus this limits the exposure to these peripheral limits of magnification reduction. Intraclass correlations for measurements and repeatability studies between instruments are very high, r = 0.96. Distortion occurs as both barrel and geometric types but both types are heterogeneous across the field of view. Distortion of geometric type ranges up to 30% at 3 mm from the object but may be as low as 5% depending on the position of the object in relation to the optic axis. Conclusion: We conclude that the optimal working distance range is between 40 and 10 mm from the object. However the clinician should be cognisant of both variations in magnification and distortion in clinical judgements.