Repensando la transferencia tecnológica: una reconsideración de la teoría del desarrollo, el Banco Mundial y la tecnología = Rethinking Technology Transfer: A Review of Development

Esta tesis es, ante todo, un examen de la progresión histórica de la Teoría del Desarrollo y de la relación entre Tecnología y Desarrollo desde el inicio enunciativo de las nociones sobre estados “desarrollados” y “subdesarrollados.” Con una revisión pormenorizada de los informes “working papers” del Banco Mundial de los últimos años de la década de los 90 sobre Tecnología y Desarrollo, la tesis tiene como base un estudio histórico que se extiende hasta el presente. Este trabajo es una crítica de las políticas de Desarrollo, y específicamente, una crítica de la ideología de los últimos 50 años, su enfoque pide que el lector examine cómo el Banco Mundial plantea, en el presente, la Transferencia Tecnológica. La tesis se pregunta si el Banco Mundial es un organismo “actualizado” acerca de su visión en torno al Desarrollo, y busca examinar como la Tecnología presenta desafíos significativos para el futuro de las Relaciones Internacionales, así como de las relaciones entre los estados ricos y los estados pobres tecnológicamente hablando.

La revolución mundial del vivir bien

El sistema-mundo capitalista no ha desarrollado metodologías de valorización de la vida. La vida ha sido reducida a objeto de estudio, no es sujeto, subjetividad, voluntad, saber, inteligencia, desarrollada, evolucionada, acumulada durante miles de millones de años. Este desprecio de la vida, inherente a la lógica del sistema capitalista, se ha expandido tanto con la mundialización, se ha desarrollado estrepitosamente en el proceso de acumulación del capital, que ha puesto en peligro la vida en todo el planeta. La contradicción entre capitalismo y vida, capitalismo y naturaleza, se ha vuelto un antagonismo. Esta contradicción desarrollada en antagonismo es la base de la revolución mundial anticapitalista.

Visión comparativa entre los laudos arbitrales emitidos por la organización mundial del comercio y la propuesta de instrumentación del arbitraje en la Comunidad Andina

Los laudos arbitrales consisten en las decisiones que emiten los árbitros al finalizar un proceso arbitral, mismo que se origina en el acuerdo de dos partes que se relacionan comercialmente y convienen en acudir al método de solución de controversias denominado arbitraje, a fin de que esos árbitros sean los encargados de resolver controversias eventuales o futuras. La Organización Mundial del Comercio cuyas siglas son OMC, es una organización establecida para fortalecer las relaciones comerciales que incrementen la producción y el comercio de bienes y servicios. En la OMC existe un Órgano de Solución de Diferencias u OSD, que fundamenta su actividad en el Entendimiento Relativo a las Normas y Procedimientos por los que se rige la Solución de Diferencias o ESD. En este Entendimiento se establece en pocas y no específicas disposiciones, los casos en los cuales los miembros de la OMC pueden acudir a la solución de sus diferencias a través del arbitraje. Los laudos arbitrales que se emiten en el OSD van a reconocerse y ejecutarse en los Estados Miembros de la OMC según procedimientos establecidos en las normas convencionales internacionales y en sus propios ordenamientos jurídicos. La Comunidad Andina cuyas siglas son CAN, es una organización subregional formada por Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. Existe una propuesta para instrumentar, o más bien para reglamentar el arbitraje como forma alternativa de solución de controversias entre diversos actores dentro de esta organización, otorgando una nueva competencia que es la arbitral al Tribunal Andino de Justicia y la facultad de organizar la administración del arbitraje a la Secretaría General de la CAN. Esta competencia consistiría en una novedosa facultad que tendrían estos dos órganos del denominado Sistema Andino de Integración o SAI, para resolver conflictos de diversa índole a través de un arbitraje andino que tendría características diferentes del arbitraje comercial internacional. Expreso mi más sentido agradecimiento al Dr. José Vicente Troya Jaramillo por haber aceptado ser el Tutor de mi tesis de maestría, reconociendo su tiempo y el aporte dado para la realización de la misma.

La incorporación del cacao ecuatoriano al mercado mundial entre 1840 y 1925, según los informes consulares (Estudios)

Este artículo ofrece una reinterpretación del proceso de incorporación del cacao ecuatoriano al mercado mundial, entre 1840 y 1925. Esta revisión se realiza a partir de los conceptos desarrollados por el economista italiano Giovanni Arrighi: incorporación nominal, incorporación periférica e incorporación no-periférica. Por medio de estos, el ensayo analiza la variedad de enlaces que se desarrollaron entre el centro y la periferia, y dentro la periferia misma. Se estudian especialmente dos momentos de este proceso: 1840-1890 y 1890-1910. El análisis de las articulaciones externas e internas que se dieron en cada una de estas fases y los factores de producción que los sustentaron permiten caracterizar al primer momento como ‘incorporación nominal’ y al segundo como ‘periférica’. Esta distinción permite una mejor comprensión del auge cacaotero ecuatoriano en el largo siglo XIX. El trabajo se basa en los informes consulares extranjeros, un tipo de documentación que no ha sido suficientemente estudiada todavía.

Acuerdo urgente y agenda por la vida y la salud. (Tesis para un movimiento mundial cohesionado y orgánico)

"La patria sudafricana que nos acoge en Ciudad del Cabo demostró en la lucha victoriosa contra el régimen del apartheid que los pueblos pueden derrotar los imperios, y la injusticia extrema que los sustenta. Inspirados en ese ejemplo histórico de coraje y fuerza, acudimos a esta asamblea para hacer visible ante el mundo que somos capaces de rebelarnos; que la energía solidaria y creatividad que emana de nuestras comunidades y culturas es el mejor antídoto contra la irracionalidad y ceguera de esa minoría poderosa que obstaculiza la construcción de un mundo centrado en la vida, en la vigencia solidaria del bien común y en la multiplicación de modos de vivir saludables y bio-seguros."

Agricultura e integración: potencialidades de la CAN frente a la crisis mundial

La crisis alimentaria mundial de 2007-2008 marca una nueva etapa en la inseguridad alimentaria mundial y presenta una naturaleza bien distinta a la de crisis anteriores. Dos son las principales características que definen la naturaleza de la actual crisis alimentaria mundial: factores de corto plazo y factores estructurales o de largo plazo. Esta compleja naturaleza de la actual crisis alimentaria estuvo en la raíz de la enorme dificultad de los Gobiernos y de las instituciones internacionales para afrontar la crisis y aliviar los impactos negativos sobre la seguridad alimentaria mundial. Algunos de los factores que inciden en la crisis están en manos de los Gobiernos, como las políticas, pero otros son muy volátiles y no están en sus manos sino que son dirigidos por los mercados. En los mercados de Sudamérica, aquellos países ricos en materias primas, la crisis se presenta como una oportunidad para el crecimiento sostenido y la posibilidad de pasar a una producción con mayor valor agregado: de las materias primas a la agroindustria. El desafío en Sudamérica hoy por hoy es crecer sostenidamente, al tiempo que se enfrentan las nuevas condiciones globales y regionales. Dentro de Sudamérica han existido, por muchas décadas, iniciativas de integración subregional que buscan profundizar el comercio agrícola. Según la FAO y ALADI una de las regiones que se vería menos afectada es la zona andina (con excepción de Bolivia y Ecuador que tienen mayor grado de vulnerabilidad). Es dentro de ese escenario de desarrollo rural e integración donde se plantean potencialidades que tiene la CAN para enfrentar la crisis alimentaria, mediante políticas compartidas en el sector agrícola que permita mejorar las convergencias de la subregión andina para alcanzar acuerdos mínimos de cooperación, tales como: Organismo Supranacional, Comité de Monitoreo de precios, Intercambio de tecnología e investigación, Ventajas competitivas y Aumento de la Productividad.

Elevated marine deposits in Bermuda record a late Quaternary megatsunami

Deposits of coral-bearing, marine shell conglomerate exposed at elevations higher than 20 m above present-day mean sea level (MSL) in Bermuda and the Bahamas have previously been interpreted as relict intertidal deposits formed during marine isotope stage (MIS) I I, ca. 360-420 ka before present. On the strength of this evidence, a sea level highstand more than 20 m higher than present-day MSL was inferred for the MIS I I interglacial, despite a lack of clear supporting evidence in the oxygen-isotope records of deep-sea sediment cores. We have critically re-examined the elevated marine deposits in Bermuda, and find their geological setting, sedimentary relations, and microfaunal assemblages to be inconsistent with intertidal deposition over an extended period. Rather, these deposits, which comprise a poorly sorted mixture of reef, lagoon and shoreline sediments, appear to have been carried tens of meters inside karst caves, presumably by large waves, at some time earlier than ca. 310-360 ka before present (MIS 9-11). We hypothesize that these deposits are the result of a large tsunami during the mid-Pleistocene, in which Bermuda was impacted by a wave set that carried sediments from the surrounding reef platform and nearshore waters over the eolianite atoll. Likely causes for such a megatsunami are the flank collapse of an Atlantic island volcano, such as the roughly synchronous Julan or Orotava submarine landslides in the Canary Islands, or a giant submarine landslide on the Atlantic continental margin. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Reply to "Mega-highstand or megatsunami? Discussion of McMurtry et al. "Elevated marine deposits in Bermuda record a late Quaternary megatsunami": Sed. Geol. 200 (2007) 155-165" by Paul J. Hearty and Storrs L. Olson

Our recent paper [McMurtry, G.M., Tappin, D.R., Sedwick, P.N., Wilkinson, I., Fietzkc, J. and Sellwood, B., 2007a. Elevated marine deposits in Bermuda record a late Quaternary megatsunami. Sedimentary Geol. 200, 155-165.] critically re-examined elevated marine deposits in Bermuda, and concluded that their geological setting, sedimentary relations, micropetrography and microfaunal assemblages were inconsistent with sustained intertidal deposition. Instead, we hypothesized that these deposits were the result of a large tsunami that impacted the Bermuda island platform during the mid-Pleistocene. Hearty and Olson [Hearty, P.J., and Olson, S.L., in press. Mega-highstand or megatsunami? Discussion of McMurtry et al. "Elevated marine deposits in Bermuda record a late Quaternary megatsunami": Sedimentary Geology, 200, 155-165, 2007 (Aug. 07). Sedimentary Geol. 200, 155-165.] in their response, attempt to refute our conclusions and claim the deposits to be the result of a +21 m eustatic sea level highstand during marine isotope stage (MIS) 11. In our reply we answer the issues raised by Hearty and Olson [Hearty, P.J., and Olson, S.L., in press. Mega-highstand or megatsunami? Discussion of McMurtry et al. "Elevated marine deposits in Bermuda record a late Quaternary megatsunami": Sedimentary Geology, 200, 155-165, 2007 (Aug. 07). Sedimentary Geol. 200,155-165.] and conclude that the Bermuda deposits do not provide unequivocal evidence of a prolonged +21 m eustatic sea level highstand. Rather, the sediments are more likely the result of a past megatsunami in the North Atlantic basin. (c) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A record of Holocene climate change from lake geochemical analyses in southeastern Arabia

Lacustrine sediments from southeastern Arabia reveal variations in lake level corresponding to changes in the strength and duration of Indian Ocean Monsoon (IOM) summer rainfall and winter cyclonic rainfall. The late glacial/Holocene transition of the region was characterised by the development of mega-linear dunes. These dunes became stabilised and vegetated during the early Holocene and interdunal lakes formed in response to the incursion of the IOM at approximately 8500 cal yr BP with the development of C3 dominated savanna grasslands. The IOM weakened ca. 6000 cal yr BP with the onset of regional aridity, aeolian sedimentation and dune reactivation and accretion. Despite this reduction in precipitation, the take was maintained by winter dominated rainfall. There was a shift to drier adapted C4 grasslands across the dune field. Lake sediment geochemical analyses record precipitation minima at 8200, 5000 and 4200 cal yr BP that coincide with Bond events in the North Atlantic. A number of these events correspond with changes in cultural periods, suggesting that climate was a key mechanism affecting human occupation and exploitation of this region. (c) 2006 University of Washington. All rights reserved.

Record of natural and anthropogenic changes in reef environments (Barbados West Indies) using laser ablation ICP-MS and sclerochronology on coral cores

Coral growth rate can be affected by environmental parameters such as seawater temperature, depth, and light intensity. The natural reef environment is also disturbed by human influences such as anthropogenic pollutants, which in Barbados are released close to the reefs. Here we describe a relatively new method of assessing the history of pollution and explain how these effects have influenced the coral communities off the west coast of Barbados. We evaluate the relative impact of both anthropogenic pollutants and natural stresses. Sclerochronology documents framework and skeletal growth rate and records pollution history (recorded as reduced growth) for a suite of sampled Montastraea annularis coral cores. X-radiography shows annual growth band patterns of the corals extending back over several decades and indicates significantly lower growth rate in polluted sites. Results using laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on the whole sample (aragonite, organic matter, trapped particulate matter, etc.), have shown contrasting concentrations of the trace elements (Cu, Sn, Zn, and Pb) between corals at different locations and within a single coral. Deepwater corals 7 km apart, record different levels of Pb and Sn, suggesting that a current transported the metal pollution in the water. In addition, the 1995 hurricanes are associated with anomalous values for Sn and Cu from most sites. These are believed to result from dispersion of nearshore polluted water. We compared the concentrations of trace elements in the coral growth of particular years to those in the relevant contemporaneous seawater. Mean values for the concentration factor in the coral, relative to the water, ranged from 10 for Cu and Ni to 2.4 and 0.7 for Cd and Zn, respectively. Although the uncertainties are large (60-80%), the coral record enabled us to demonstrate the possibility of calculating a history of seawater pollution for these elements from the 1940s to 1997. Our values were much higher than those obtained from analysis of carefully cleaned coral aragonite; they demonstrate the incorporation of more contamination including that from particulate material as well as dissolved metals.

Mesozoic climates: General circulation models and the rock record

General circulation models (GCMs) use the laws of physics and an understanding of past geography to simulate climatic responses. They are objective in character. However, they tend to require powerful computers to handle vast numbers of calculations. Nevertheless, it is now possible to compare results from different GCMs for a range of times and over a wide range of parameterisations for the past, present and future (e.g. in terms of predictions of surface air temperature, surface moisture, precipitation, etc.). GCMs are currently producing simulated climate predictions for the Mesozoic, which compare favourably with the distributions of climatically sensitive facies (e.g. coals, evaporites and palaeosols). They can be used effectively in the prediction of oceanic upwelling sites and the distribution of petroleum source rocks and phosphorites. Models also produce evaluations of other parameters that do not leave a geological record (e.g. cloud cover, snow cover) and equivocal phenomena such as storminess. Parameterisation of sub-grid scale processes is the main weakness in GCMs (e.g. land surfaces, convection, cloud behaviour) and model output for continental interiors is still too cold in winter by comparison with palaeontological data. The sedimentary and palaeontological record provides an important way that GCMs may themselves be evaluated and this is important because the same GCMs are being used currently to predict possible changes in future climate. The Mesozoic Earth was, by comparison with the present, an alien world, as we illustrate here by reference to late Triassic, late Jurassic and late Cretaceous simulations. Dense forests grew close to both poles but experienced months-long daylight in warm summers and months-long darkness in cold snowy winters. Ocean depths were warm (8 degrees C or more to the ocean floor) and reefs, with corals, grew 10 degrees of latitude further north and south than at the present time. The whole Earth was warmer than now by 6 degrees C or more, giving more atmospheric humidity and a greatly enhanced hydrological cycle. Much of the rainfall was predominantly convective in character, often focused over the oceans and leaving major desert expanses on the continental areas. Polar ice sheets are unlikely to have been present because of the high summer temperatures achieved. The model indicates extensive sea ice in the nearly enclosed Arctic seaway through a large portion of the year during the late Cretaceous, and the possibility of sea ice in adjacent parts of the Midwest Seaway over North America. The Triassic world was a predominantly warm world, the model output for evaporation and precipitation conforming well with the known distributions of evaporites, calcretes and other climatically sensitive facies for that time. The message from the geological record is clear. Through the Phanerozoic, Earth's climate has changed significantly, both on a variety of time scales and over a range of climatic states, usually baldly referred to as "greenhouse" and "icehouse", although these terms disguise more subtle states between these extremes. Any notion that the climate can remain constant for the convenience of one species of anthropoid is a delusion (although the recent rate of climatic change is exceptional). (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mapping the human record in the British early Palaeolithic: evidence from the Solent River system

The lithic record from the Solent River and its tributaries is re-examined in the light of recent interpretations about the changing demography of Britain during the Lower and early Middle Palaeolithic. Existing models of the terrace stratigraphies in the Solent and its tributary areas are reviewed and the corresponding archaeological record (specifically handaxes) for each terrace is assessed to provide models for the relative changes in human occupation through time. The Bournemouth area is studied in detail to examine the effects of quarrying and urbanisation on collection history and on the biases it introduces to the record. In addition, the effects of reworking of artefacts from higher into lower terraces are assessed, and shown to be a significant problem. Although there is very little absolute dating available for the Solent area, a cautious interpretation of the results from these analyses would suggest a pre-Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 12 date for the first appearance of humans, a peak in population between MIS 12 and 10, and a decline in population during MIS 9 and 8. Owing to poor contextual data and small sample sizes, it is not clear when Levallois technology was introduced. This record is compared and contrasted to that from the Thames Valley. It is suggested that changes in the palaeogeography of Britain, in particular land connections to the continent, might have contributed to differences in the archaeological records from the Solent and Thames regions.