New generation vaccine induces effective melanoma-specific CD8+ T cells in the circulation but not in the tumor site.

Although increasing evidence suggests that CTL are important to fight the development of some cancers, the frequency of detectable tumor-specific T cells is low in cancer patients, and these cells have generally poor functional capacities, compared with virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. The generation with a vaccine of potent CTL responses against tumor Ags therefore remains a major challenge. In the present study, ex vivo analyses of Melan-A-specific CD8(+) T cells following vaccination with Melan-A peptide and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides revealed the successful induction in the circulation of effective melanoma-specific T cells, i.e., with phenotypic and functional characteristics similar to those of CTL specific for immunodominant viral Ags. Nonetheless, the eventual impact on tumor development in vaccinated melanoma donors remained limited. The comprehensive study of vaccinated patient metastasis shows that vaccine-driven tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, although activated, still differed in functional capacities compared with blood counterparts. This coincided with a significant increase of FoxP3(+) regulatory T cell activity within the tumor. The consistent induction of effective tumor-specific CD8(+) T cells in the circulation with a vaccine represents a major achievement; however, clinical benefit may not be achieved unless the tumor environment can be altered to enable CD8(+) T cell efficacy.

Melan-A/MART-1-specific CD4 T cells in melanoma patients: identification of new epitopes and ex vivo visualization of specific T cells by MHC class II tetramers.

Over the past decade, many efforts have been made to identify MHC class II-restricted epitopes from different tumor-associated Ags. Melan-A/MART-1(26-35) parental or Melan-A/MART-1(26-35(A27L)) analog epitopes have been widely used in melanoma immunotherapy to induce and boost CTL responses, but only one Th epitope is currently known (Melan-A51-73, DRB1*0401 restricted). In this study, we describe two novel Melan-A/MART-1-derived sequences recognized by CD4 T cells from melanoma patients. These epitopes can be mimicked by peptides Melan-A27-40 presented by HLA-DRB1*0101 and HLA-DRB1*0102 and Melan-A25-36 presented by HLA-DQB1*0602 and HLA-DRB1*0301. CD4 T cell clones specific for these epitopes recognize Melan-A/MART-1+ tumor cells and Melan-A/MART-1-transduced EBV-B cells and recognition is reduced by inhibitors of the MHC class II presentation pathway. This suggests that the epitopes are naturally processed and presented by EBV-B cells and melanoma cells. Moreover, Melan-A-specific Abs could be detected in the serum of patients with measurable CD4 T cell responses specific for Melan-A/MART-1. Interestingly, even the short Melan-A/MART-1(26-35(A27L)) peptide was recognized by CD4 T cells from HLA-DQ6+ and HLA-DR3+ melanoma patients. Using Melan-A/MART-1(25-36)/DQ6 tetramers, we could detect Ag-specific CD4 T cells directly ex vivo in circulating lymphocytes of a melanoma patient. Together, these results provide the basis for monitoring of naturally occurring and vaccine-induced Melan-A/MART-1-specific CD4 T cell responses, allowing precise and ex vivo characterization of responding T cells.

Quantitative multiparameter assays to measure the effect of adjuvants on human antigen-specific CD8 T-cell responses.

Large numbers and functionally competent T cells are required to protect from diseases for which antibody-based vaccines have consistently failed (1), which is the case for many chronic viral infections and solid tumors. Therefore, therapeutic vaccines aim at the induction of strong antigen-specific T-cell responses. Novel adjuvants have considerably improved the capacity of synthetic vaccines to activate T cells, but more research is necessary to identify optimal compositions of potent vaccine formulations. Consequently, there is a great need to develop accurate methods for the efficient identification of antigen-specific T cells and the assessment of their functional characteristics directly ex vivo. In this regard, hundreds of clinical vaccination trials have been implemented during the last 15 years, and monitoring techniques become more and more standardized.

Safety of human immunisation with a live-attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis vaccine: a randomised, double-blind, controlled phase I trial.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis remains one of the world's deadliest transmissible diseases despite widespread use of the BCG vaccine. MTBVAC is a new live tuberculosis vaccine based on genetically attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis that expresses most antigens present in human isolates of M tuberculosis. We aimed to compare the safety of MTBVAC with BCG in healthy adult volunteers. METHODS: We did this single-centre, randomised, double-blind, controlled phase 1 study at the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV; Lausanne, Switzerland). Volunteers were eligible for inclusion if they were aged 18-45 years, clinically healthy, HIV-negative and tuberculosis-negative, and had no history of active tuberculosis, chemoprophylaxis for tuberculosis, or BCG vaccination. Volunteers fulfilling the inclusion criteria were randomly assigned to three cohorts in a dose-escalation manner. Randomisation was done centrally by the CHUV Pharmacy and treatments were masked from the study team and volunteers. As participants were recruited within each cohort, they were randomly assigned 3:1 to receive MTBVAC or BCG. Of the participants allocated MTBVAC, those in the first cohort received 5 × 10(3) colony forming units (CFU) MTBVAC, those in the second cohort received 5 × 10(4) CFU MTBVAC, and those in the third cohort received 5 × 10(5) CFU MTBVAC. In all cohorts, participants assigned to receive BCG were given 5 × 10(5) CFU BCG. Each participant received a single intradermal injection of their assigned vaccine in 0·1 mL sterile water in their non-dominant arm. The primary outcome was safety in all vaccinated participants. Secondary outcomes included whole blood cell-mediated immune response to live MTBVAC and BCG, and interferon γ release assays (IGRA) of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02013245. FINDINGS: Between Jan 23, 2013, and Nov 6, 2013, we enrolled 36 volunteers into three cohorts, each of which consisted of nine participants who received MTBVAC and three who received BCG. 34 volunteers completed the trial. The safety of vaccination with MTBVAC at all doses was similar to that of BCG, and vaccination did not induce any serious adverse events. All individuals were IGRA negative at the end of follow-up (day 210). After whole blood stimulation with live MTBVAC or BCG, MTBVAC was at least as immunogenic as BCG. At the same dose as BCG (5×10(5) CFU), although no statistical significance could be achieved, there were more responders in the MTBVAC group than in the BCG group, with a greater frequency of polyfunctional CD4+ central memory T cells. INTERPRETATION: To our knowledge, MTBVAC is the first live-attenuated M tuberculosis vaccine to reach clinical assessment, showing similar safety to BCG. MTBVAC seemed to be at least as immunogenic as BCG, but the study was not powered to investigate this outcome. Further plans to use more immunogenicity endpoints in a larger number of volunteers (adults and adolescents) are underway, with the aim to thoroughly characterise and potentially distinguish immunogenicity between MTBVAC and BCG in tuberculosis-endemic countries. Combined with an excellent safety profile, these data support advanced clinical development in high-burden tuberculosis endemic countries. FUNDING: Biofabri and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation through the TuBerculosis Vaccine Initiative (TBVI).

Targeting the undruggable: immunotherapy meets personalized oncology in the genomic era.

Owing to recent advances in genomic technologies, personalized oncology is poised to fundamentally alter cancer therapy. In this paradigm, the mutational and transcriptional profiles of tumors are assessed, and personalized treatments are designed based on the specific molecular abnormalities relevant to each patient's cancer. To date, such approaches have yielded impressive clinical responses in some patients. However, a major limitation of this strategy has also been revealed: the vast majority of tumor mutations are not targetable by current pharmacological approaches. Immunotherapy offers a promising alternative to exploit tumor mutations as targets for clinical intervention. Mutated proteins can give rise to novel antigens (called neoantigens) that are recognized with high specificity by patient T cells. Indeed, neoantigen-specific T cells have been shown to underlie clinical responses to many standard treatments and immunotherapeutic interventions. Moreover, studies in mouse models targeting neoantigens, and early results from clinical trials, have established proof of concept for personalized immunotherapies targeting next-generation sequencing identified neoantigens. Here, we review basic immunological principles related to T-cell recognition of neoantigens, and we examine recent studies that use genomic data to design personalized immunotherapies. We discuss the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead on the road to improving patient outcomes by incorporating immunotherapy into the paradigm of personalized oncology.

Antibody levels against GLURP R2, MSP1 block 2 hybrid and AS202.11 and the risk of malaria in children living in hyperendemic (Burkina Faso) and hypo-endemic (Ghana) areas.

Differences in parasite transmission intensity influence the process of acquisition of host immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria and ultimately, the rate of malaria related morbidity and mortality. Potential vaccines being designed to complement current intervention efforts therefore need to be evaluated against different malaria endemicity backgrounds. The associations between antibody responses to the chimeric merozoite surface protein 1 block 2 hybrid (MSP1 hybrid), glutamate-rich protein region 2 (GLURP R2) and the peptide AS202.11, and the risk of malaria were assessed in children living in malaria hyperendemic (Burkina Faso, n = 354) and hypo-endemic (Ghana, n = 209) areas. Using the same reagent lots and standardized protocols for both study sites, immunoglobulin (Ig) M, IgG and IgG sub-class levels to each antigen were measured by ELISA in plasma from the children (aged 6-72 months). Associations between antibody levels and risk of malaria were assessed using Cox regression models adjusting for covariates. There was a significant association between GLURP R2 IgG3 and reduced risk of malaria after adjusting age of children in both the Burkinabe (hazard ratio 0.82; 95 % CI 0.74-0.91, p < 0.0001) and the Ghanaian (HR 0.48; 95 % CI 0.25-0.91, p = 0.02) cohorts. MSP1 hybrid IgM was associated (HR 0.85; 95 % CI 0.73-0.98, p = 0.02) with reduced risk of malaria in Burkina Faso cohort while IgG against AS202.11 in the Ghanaian children was associated with increased risk of malaria (HR 1.29; 95 % CI 1.01-1.65, p = 0.04). These findings support further development of GLURP R2 and MSP1 block 2 hybrid, perhaps as a fusion vaccine antigen targeting malaria blood stage that can be deployed in areas of varying transmission intensity.

Personalized approaches to active immunotherapy in cancer

Immunotherapy is emerging as a promising anti-cancer curative modality. However, in contrast to recent advances obtained employing checkpoint blockade agents and T cell therapies, clinical efficacy of therapeutic cancer vaccines is still limited. Most vaccination attempts in the clinic represent "off-the shelf" approaches since they target common "self" tumor antigens, shared among different patients. In contrast, personalized approaches of vaccination are tailor-made for each patient and in spite being laborious, hold great potential. Recent technical advancement enabled the first steps in the clinic of personalized vaccines that target patient-specific mutated neo-antigens. Such vaccines could induce enhanced tumor-specific immune response since neo-antigens are mutation-derived antigens that can be recognized by high affinity T cells, not limited by central tolerance. Alternatively, the use of personalized vaccines based on whole autologous tumor cells, overcome the need for the identification of specific tumor antigens. Whole autologous tumor cells could be administered alone, pulsed on dendritic cells as lysate, DNA, RNA or delivered to dendritic cells in-vivo through encapsulation in nanoparticle vehicles. Such vaccines may provide a source for the full repertoire of the patient-specific tumor antigens, including its private neo-antigens. Furthermore, combining next-generation personalized vaccination with other immunotherapy modalities might be the key for achieving significant therapeutic outcome.

Engineering an improved adenovirus packaging cell line

Recombinant human adenovirus (Ad) vectors are being extensively explored for their use in gene therapy and recombinant vaccines. Ad vectors are attractive for many reasons, including the fact that (1) they are relatively safe, based on their use as live oral vaccines, (2) they can accept large transgene inserts, (3) they can infect dividing and postmitotic cells, and (4) they can be produced to high titers. However, there are also a number of major problems associated with Ad vectors, including transient foreign gene expression due to host cellular immune responses, problems with humoral immunity, and the creation of replication competent adenoviruses (RCA). Most Ad vectors contain deletions in the E1 region that allow for insertion of a transgene. However, the E1 gene products are required for replication and thus must be supplied in trans by a helper ceillille that will allow for the growth and packaging of the defective virus. For this purpose the 293 cell line (Graham et al., 1977) is used most often; however, homologous recombination between the vector and the cell line often results in the generation of RCA. The presence of RCA in batches of adenoviral vectors for clinical use is a safety risk because tlley . may result in the mobilization and spread of the replication-defective vector viruses, and in significant tissue damage and pathogenicity. The present research focused on the alteration of the 293 cell line such that RCA formation can be eliminated. The strategy to modify the 293 cells involved the removal of the first 380 bp of the adenovirus genome through the process of homologous recombination. The first step towards this goal involved identifying and cloning the left-end cellular-viral jUl1ction from 293 cells to assemble sequences required for homologous recombination. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to clone the junction, and the clone was verified through sequencing. The plasn1id PAM2 was then constructed, which served as the targeting cassette used to modify the 293 cells. The cassette consisted of (1) the cellular-viral junction as the left-end region of homology, (2) the neo gene to use for positive selection upon tranfection into 293 cells, (3) the adenoviral genome from bp 380 to bp 3438 as the right-end region of homology, and (4) the HSV-tk gene to use for negative selection. The plasmid PAM2 was linearized to produce a double strand break outside the region of homology, and transfected into 293 cells using the calcium-phosphate technique. Cells were first selected for their resistance to the drug G418, and subsequently for their resistance to the drug Gancyclovir (GANC). From 17 transfections, 100 pools of G418f and GANCf cells were picked using cloning lings and expanded for screening. Genomic DNA was isolated from the pools and screened for the presence of the 380 bps using PCR. Ten of the most promising pools were diluted to single cells and expanded in order to isolate homogeneous cell lines. From these, an additional 100 G41Sf and GANef foci were screened. These preliminary screening results appear promising for the detection of the desired cell line. Future work would include further cloning and purification of the promising cell lines that have potentially undergone homologous recombination, in order to isolate a homogeneous cell line of interest.

The cloning and reconstitution of a bovine adenovirus type 2 E3 deletion mutant and the sequencing and analysis of the early 4 region

Recombinant Adenoviruses (Ads) have been shown to have potential applications in three areas: gene therapy, high level protein expression and recombinant vaccines.' At least three different locations within the Ad genome can be deleted and subsequently used for the insertion of foreign sequences. These include the Early 3 (E3), Early 1 (E1) and Early 4 (E4) regions. Viral vectors of this type have been well studied in Human Ads 2 and 5, however one has not yet been constructed for Bovine Adenovirus Type 2 (BAV2). The E3 region is located between 76.6 and 86 m.u. on the r-strand and is transcribed in a rightward direction. The gene products of the Early 3 region (E3) have been shown to be non-essential for viral replication, in vitro, but are required for host immunosurveillance. This study represents the cloning and reconstitution of a BAV2 E3 deletion mutant. A deletion of 1800bp was made within the E3 region of BAV2 and the thymidine kinase gene was subsequently inserted in the deleted area . . The plasmid pdlE3-4tk1 (23.4Kbp) was constructed and used to to facilitate homologous recombination with the wild type BAV2 to produce a mutant. Southern Blotting and Hybridization results suggest the presence of a BAV2 E3 deletion mutant with thymidine kinase sequences present. The E4 region of Human Adenovirus types 2 and 5 is located at the extreme right end of the genome (91.3 map units - 99.1 map units) and is transcribed in a leftward direction giving rise to a complicated set of differentially spliced mRNAs. Essentially there are 7 open reading frames (ORFs) encoding for at least 7 polypeptides. The gene products encoded by the E4 region have been shown to be essential for the expression of late viral genes, host cell shutoff and normal viral growth. We have cloned and sequenced the right end segment between 90.5 map units and 100 map units of the BAV2 genome. The results show several open reading frames which encode polypeptides exhibiting homology to three polypeptides encoded by the E4 region of human adenovirus type 2. These include the 14kDa protein encoded by ORF1, the 34kDa protein encoded by ORF6 and the 13kDa protein encoded by ORF3. The nucleotide sequence, restriction enzyme map, and ORF map of the E4 region could be very useful in future molecular manipulation of this region and could possibly explain the slow growth rate of BAV2 in MDBK cells.

Isolation and characterization of genomic DNA sequences that enhance the stability of plasmid DNA in mammalian cells /

The ease of production and manipulation has made plasmid DNA a prime target for its use in gene transfer technologies such as gene therapy and DNA vaccines. The major drawback of plasmid however is its stability within mammalian cells. Plasmid DNA is usually lost by cellular mechanisms or as a result of mitosis by simple dilution. This study set out to search for mammalian genomic DNA sequences that would enhance the stability of plasmid DNA in mammalian cells.Creating a plasmid based genomic DNA library, we were able to screen the human genome by transfecting the library into Human Embryonic Kidney (HEK 293) Cells. Cells that contained plasmid DNA were selected, using G418 for 14 days. The resulting population was then screened for the presence of biologically active plasmid DNA using the process of transformation as a detector.A commercially available plasmid DNA isolation kit was modified to extract plasmid DNA from mammalian cells. The standardized protocol had a detection limit of -0.6 plasmids per cell in one million cells. This allowed for the detection of 45 plasmids that were maintained for 32 days in the HEK 293 cells. Sequencing of selected inserts revealed a significantly higher thymine content in comparison to the human genome. Sequences with high A/T content have been associated with Scaffold/Matrix Attachment Region (S/MAR) sequences in mammalian cells. Therefore, association with the nuclear matrix might be required for the stability of plasmids in mammalian cells.

Longitudinal changes in HIV-specific IFN-? secretion in subjects who received Remune™ vaccination prior to treatment interruption

Affiliation: Maude Loignon, Lise Cyr & Emil Toma : Département de microbiologie et immunologie, Faculté de médecine, Université de Montréal

L’éthique et l’acceptation sociale des innovations technologiques. Le cas des vaccins transgéniques

La technologie est une manière pour la science d’exprimer son côté pratique en plus d’être un moyen de traduire les connaissances lors de vraies applications scientifiques, mais ce processus peut engendrer une variété de défis moraux et éthiques. Le champ des biotechnologies laisse entrevoir de grandes réalisations pour les sociétés, y compris des traitements médicaux révolutionnaires et des aliments modifiés génétiquement, lesquels seraient sécuritaires, accessibles et largement disponibles. Mais peu de produits ont réussi le saut dans le panier du consommateur. Dans un des domaines d'application les plus prometteurs, tel celui des biotechnologies agricoles, certaines technologies n’ont pas encore entièrement émergé des laboratoires et ces produits, qui sont à l’heure actuelle sur le marché, ont été la source de polémiques significatives. L’étude présente se concentre sur le cas des vaccins faits à partir de plantes transgéniques qui, au cours des 15 dernières années, a peine à passer outre l’étape de la preuve de conception. Ces vaccins stagnent là où ils auraient dû accomplir la « promesse d'or » de fournir à bas coût une inoculation efficace pour les populations pauvres des pays en voie de développement. La question examinée dans cet essai est pourquoi, au-delà du processus de la découverte et de la conceptualisation, de telles technologies éprouvent des difficultés à atteindre leur maturité et ainsi retarde l’implantation dans les sociétés contemporaines ? Quels facteurs particuliers, sous l’angle de la bioéthique, auront besoin d’une reconsidération dans le cas échéant d’une mise en application de ces technologies pour être acceptées par les consommateurs, et avoir ainsi un impact positif sur la santé globale et l’accès équitable aux soins de santé ?

La protéine majeure de la capside de l’HSV-1 est ubiquitinée

Le virus de l’Herpès simplex de type 1 (HSV-1) est le pathogène humain responsable des lésions herpétiques labiales, plus communément appelé « feux sauvages ». Annuellement, il est responsable de plusieurs cas d’encéphalites et d’infections de l’appareil visuel qui sont la principale cause de cécité en Amérique du Nord. Bien qu’il existe quelques traitements antiviraux, aucun vaccin ou médicament ne permet de prévenir ou de guérir les infections causées par ce virus. Aujourd’hui, les infections produites par l’HSV-1 sont présentes partout sur la planète. Récemment, une étude en protéomique effectuée sur les virus matures extracellulaires a permis d’identifier la présence d’ubiquitines libres et d’enzymes reliées à la machinerie d’ubiquitination dans le virus. De plus, le virus exploite cette machinerie au cours de l’infection. Il est connu que certaines protéines virales sont ubiquitinées durant une infection et que le virus imite même certaines enzymes d’ubiquitination. Nous avons donc entrepris des recherches afin d’identifier des protéines virales ubiquitinées qui pourraient être présentes dans les virus matures ainsi que leurs rôles potentiels. La protéine majeure de la capside, VP5, un constituant très important du virus, a été identifiée. Nos recherches nous ont permis de caractériser le type d’ubiquitination, une monoubiquitination sur les lysines K810 et/ou K1275 de VP5. Le rôle que pourrait jouer l’ubiquitination de VP5 dans le cycle de réplication virale et dans les virus matures n’est toutefois pas encore connu.

Effet de l'initiation du traitement antirétroviral sur la diversité virale du VIH

L’épidémie du VIH-1 dure maintenant depuis plus de 25 ans. La grande diversité génétique de ce virus est un obstacle majeur en vue de l’éradication de cette pandémie. Au cours des années, le VIH-1 a évolué en plus de cinquante sous-types ou formes recombinantes. Cette diversité génétique est influencée par diverses pressions de sélection, incluant les pressions du système immunitaire de l’hôte et les agents antirétroviraux (ARV). En effet, bien que les ARV aient considérablement réduit les taux de morbidité et de mortalité, en plus d’améliorer la qualité et l’espérance de vie des personnes atteintes du VIH-1, ces traitements sont complexes, dispendieux et amènent leur lot de toxicité pouvant mener à des concentrations plasmatiques sous-optimales pour contrôler la réplication virale. Ceci va permettre l’émergence de variantes virales portant des mutations de résistance aux ARV. Ce phénomène est encore plus complexe lorsque l’on prend en considération l’immense diversité génétique des différents sous-types. De plus, le virus du VIH est capable de persister sous forme latente dans diverses populations cellulaires, rendant ainsi son éradication extrêmement difficile. Des stratégies pouvant restreindre la diversité virale ont donc été préconisées dans le but de favoriser les réponses immunes de l’hôte pour le contrôle de l’infection et d’identifier des variantes virales offrant une meilleure cible pour des stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Dans cet esprit, nous avons donc étudié, chez des sujets infectés récemment par le VIH-1, l’effet du traitement ARV précoce sur la diversité virale de la région C2V5 du gène enveloppe ainsi que sur la taille des réservoirs. En deuxième lieu, nous avons caractérisé la pression de sélection des ARV sur des souches virales de sous types variés non-B, chez des patients du Mali et du Burkina Faso afin d’évaluer les voies d’échappement viral dans un fond génétique différent du sous-type B largement prévalent en Amérique du Nord. Notre étude a démontré la présence d’une population virale très homogène et peu diversifiée dans les premières semaines suivant l’infection, qui évolue pour atteindre une diversification de +0,23% à la fin de la première année. Cette diversification est plus importante chez les sujets n’ayant pas initié de traitement. De plus, ceci s’accompagne d’un plus grand nombre de particules virales infectieuses dans les réservoirs viraux des cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) chez ces sujets. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’initiation précoce du traitement pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique en retardant l’évolution virale ainsi que la taille des réservoirs, ce qui pourrait supporter une réponse immune mieux ciblée et potentiellement des stratégies immunothérapeutiques permettant d’éradiquer le virus. Nous avons également suivi 801 sujets infectés par des sous-types non-B sur le point de débuter un traitement antirétroviral. Bien que la majorité des sujets ait été à un stade avancé de la maladie, plus de 75% des individus ont obtenu une charge virale indétectable après 6 mois d’ARV, témoignant de l’efficacité comparable des ARV sur les sous-types non-B et B. Toutefois, contrairement aux virus de sous-type B, nous avons observé différentes voies moléculaires de résistance chez les sous type non-B, particulièrement chez les sous-types AGK/AK/K pour lesquels les voies de résistances étaient associées de façon prédominante aux TAM2. De plus, bien que la divergence entre les virus retrouvés chez les patients d’une même région soit faible, nos analyses phylogénétiques ont permis de conclure que ces mutations de résistance se sont produites de novo et non à partir d’un ancêtre commun porteur de résistance. Cependant, notre dernière étude au Mali nous a permis d’évaluer la résistance primaire à près de 10% et des études phylogénétiques seront effectuées afin d’évaluer la circulation de ces souches résistantes dans la population. Ces études suggèrent qu’un contrôle de la réplication virale par les ARV peut freiner la diversité du VIH et ainsi ouvrir la voie à un contrôle immunologique ciblé, utilisant de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Toutefois, une thérapie antirétrovirale sous-optimale (adhérence, toxicité) peut conduire à l’échappement virologique en favorisant l’émergence et la dissémination de souches résistantes.

Étude de l’efficacité de la vaccination à Salmonella Enteritidis chez la poule pondeuse et de la protection contre l’infection

Les infections à Salmonella Enteritidis chez les humains sont associées à la consommation d’œufs ou d’ovoproduits contaminés. La vaccination est un outil utilisé pour diminuer les risques d’infection à SE chez la volaille, mais avec des résultats variables. Au Canada deux bactérines, MBL SE4C et Layermune, sont couramment utilisées pour lutter contre SE. Cependant, leur efficacité n’a pas été complètement déterminée chez les poules pondeuses plus âgées. Par ailleurs, la capacité de ces vaccins à prévenir la transmission verticale et horizontale n’a pas encore été étudiée. L’objectif principal de cette étude était d’évaluer l’effet des deux bactérines sur la réponse immunitaire chez les poules pondeuses, de vérifier la protection conférée par ces vaccins contre l’infection expérimentale à SE, et d’identifier des protéines immunogènes afin de développer un vaccin sous-unitaire. Les oiseaux ont été vaccinés avec deux protocoles d’immunisation en cours d’élevage (soit à 12 et 18, ou à 16 semaines d’âge). Le groupe contrôle a été injecté avec la solution saline. Les oiseaux ont été inoculés per os avec 2 x 109 CFU de la souche SE lysotype 4 à 55 ou à 65 semaines d’âge. Les anticorps (IgG et IgA) ont été mesurés à différents temps avec un ELISA maison en utilisant l’antigène entier de SE. La phagocytose, flambée oxydative, les populations des splénocytes B et T ont été analysées en utilisant la cytométrie en flux. Les signes cliniques, l’excrétion fécale, la contamination des jaunes d’œufs et l’invasion des salmonelles dans les organes ont été étudiés pour évaluer l’efficacité de protection. La transmission horizontale a aussi été étudiée en évaluant l’infection à SE chez les oiseaux mis en contact avec les oiseaux inoculés. Les protéines immunogènes ont été identifiées par SDS-PAGE et Western blot à l’aide d’antisérums prélevés suite à la vaccination et/ou à l’infection expérimentale/naturelle, puis caractérisées par la spectrométrie de masse. Le protocole de vaccination avec deux immunisations a généré un niveau élevé de séroconversion à partir de 3 jusqu’à 32-34 semaines post-vaccination par rapport à celui avec une seule immunisation (p < 0.02), mais il n’y avait plus de différence entre les groupes à 54 et 64 semaines d’âge. Il n’y a pas eu de corrélation entre les niveaux d’IgG et les taux d’isolement des salmonelles dans les organes et des jaunes d’œuf. La production des IgA n’a été observée que chez les oiseaux vaccinés avec 2 injections de MBL SE4C (p ≤ 0.04). Après l’infection expérimentale, la production des IgA a été significativement plus élevée aux jours 1 et 7 p.i dans l’oviducte des oiseaux vaccinés (sauf pour le groupe vacciné avec 2 injections de Layermune) par comparaison avec le groupe contrôle (p ≤ 0.03). Seule la bactérine MBL SE4C a eu un effet protecteur contre la contamination des jaunes d’œuf chez les oiseaux infectés. Ce vaccin réduit partiellement en utilisant deux immunisations, le taux d’excrétion fécale des salmonelles chez les oiseaux inoculés et les oiseaux horizontalement infectés (p ≤ 0.02). Cinq des protéines identifiées par la spectrométrie de masse sont considérées comme des protéines potentiellement candidates pour une étude plus approfondie de leur immonogénicité: Lipoamide dehydrogenase, Enolase (2-phosphoglycerate dehydratase) (2-phospho-D-glycerate hydro-lyase), Elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu), Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) et DNA protection during starvation protein. En général, les bactérines ont induit une immunité humorale (IgG et IgA) chez les poules pondeuses. Cette réponse immunitaire a protégé partiellement les oiseaux quant à l’élimination des salmonelles, la contamination des jaunes d’œuf, ainsi que la transmission horizontale. Dans cette étude, la bactérine MBL SE4C (avec deux immunisations) s’est montrée plus efficace pour protéger les oiseaux que la bactérine Layermune. Nos résultats apportent des informations objectives et complémentaires sur le potentiel de deux bactérines pour lutter contre SE chez les poules pondeuses. Étant donné la protection partielle obtenue en utilisant ces vaccins, l’identification des antigènes immunogènes a permis de sélectionner des protéines spécifiques pour l’élaboration éventuelle d’un vaccin plus efficace contre SE chez les volailles.