Antinociception induced by acute oral administration of sweet substance in young and adult rodents: The role of endogenous opioid peptides chemical mediators and mu(1)-opioid receptors

The present work aimed to investigate the effects of acute sucrose treatment on the perception of painful stimuli. Specifically, we sought to determine the involvement of the endogenous opioid peptide-mediated system as well as the role of the mu(1)-opioid receptor in antinociception organisation induced by acute sucrose intake. Nociception was assessed with the tail-flick test in rats (75, 150 and 250 g) of different ages acutely pre-treated with 500 mu L. of a sucrose solution (25, 50, 150 and 250 g/L) or tap water. Young and Adult rats (250 g) showed antinociception after treatment with 50 g/L (during 5 min) and 150 g/L and 250 g/L (during 20 min) sucrose solutions. Surprisingly, this antinociception was more consistent in mature adult rodents than in pups. To evaluate the role of opioid systems, mature adult rodents were pre-treated with different doses (0.25, 1 or 4mg/kg) of the non-selective opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, the selective pi-opioid receptor antagonist naloxonazine or vehicle followed by 250 g/L sucrose solution treatment. Sucrose-induced antinociception was reduced by pre-treatment with both naloxone and naloxonazine. The present findings suggest that sweet substance-induced hypo-analgesia is augmented by increasing sucrose concentrations in young and adult rodents. Acute oral sucrose treatment inhibits pain in laboratory animal by mediating endogenous opioid peptide and mu(1)-opioid receptor actions. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Carboxypeptidases A1 and A2 from the perfusate of rat mesenteric arterial bed differentially process angiotensin peptides

Here we report the isolation of carboxypeptidases A1 and A2 (CPA1 and CPA2) from the rat mesenteric arterial bed perfusate, which were found to be identical with their pancreatic counterparts. Angiotensin (Ang) I, Ang II, Ang-(1-9) and Ang-(1-12) were differentially processed by these enzymes, worthy mentioning the peculiar CPA1-catalyzed conversion of Ang II to Ang-(1-7) and the CPA2-mediated formation of Ang I from Ang-(1-12). We detected gene transcripts for CPA1 and CPA2 in mesentery and other extrapancreatic tissues, indicating that these CPAs might play a role in the renin-angiotensin system in addition to their functions as digestive enzymes. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Peptides of the Constant Region of Antibodies Display Fungicidal Activity

Synthetic peptides with sequences identical to fragments of the constant region of different classes (IgG, IgM, IgA) of antibodies (Fc-peptides) exerted a fungicidal activity in vitro against pathogenic yeasts, such as Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Malassezia furfur, including caspofungin and triazole resistant strains. Alanine-substituted derivatives of fungicidal Fc-peptides, tested to evaluate the critical role of each residue, displayed unaltered, increased or decreased candidacidal activity in vitro. An Fc-peptide, included in all human IgGs, displayed a therapeutic effect against experimental mucosal and systemic candidiasis in mouse models. It is intriguing to hypothesize that some Fc-peptides may influence the antifungal immune response and constitute the basis for devising new antifungal agents.

Identification of intracellular peptides in rat adipose tissue: Insights into insulin resistance

Intracellular peptides generated by the proteasome and oligopeptidases have been suggested to function in signal transduction and to improve insulin resistance in mice fed a high-caloric diet. The aim of this study was to identify specific intracellular peptides in the adipose tissue of Wistar rats that could be associated with the physiological and therapeutic control of glucose uptake. Using semiquantitative mass spectrometry and LC/MS/MS analyses, we identified ten peptides in the epididymal adipose tissue of the Wistar rats; three of these peptides were present at increased levels in rats that were fed a high-caloric Western diet (WD) compared with rats fed a control diet (CD). The results of affinity chromatography suggested that in the cytoplasm of epididymal adipose tissue from either WD or CD rats, distinctive proteins bind to these peptides. However, despite the observed increase in the WD animals, the evaluated peptides increased insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with palmitate. Thus, intracellular peptides from the adipose tissue of Wistar rats can bind to specific proteins and facilitate insulin-induced glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Natriuretic Peptides and Long-Term Mortality in Patients with Severe Aortic Stenosis

Background and aim of the study: The natriuretic peptides, brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and its N-terminal prohormone (NT-proBNP), can be used as diagnostic and prognostic markers for aortic stenosis (AS). However, the association between BNP, NT-proBNP, and long-term clinical outcomes in patients with severe AS remains uncertain. Methods: A total of 64 patients with severe AS was prospectively enrolled into the study, and underwent clinical and echocardiographic assessments at baseline. Blood samples were drawn for plasma BNP and NT-proBNP analyses. The primary outcome was death from any cause, through a six-year follow up period. Cox proportional hazards modeling was used to examine the association between natriuretic peptides and long-term mortality, adjusting for important clinical factors. Results: During a mean period of 1,520 681 days, 51 patients (80%) were submitted to aortic valve replacement, and 13 patients (20%) were medically managed without surgical interventions. Mortality rates were 13.7% in the surgical group and 62% in the medically managed group (p <0.001). Patients with higher plasma BNP (>135 pg/ml) and NT-proBNP (>1,150 pg/ml) levels at baseline had a greater risk of long-term mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 3.2, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-9.1; HR 4.3, 95% CI 1.4-13.5, respectively). After adjusting for important covariates, both BNP and NT-proBNP remained independently associated with long-term mortality (HR 2.9, 95%CI 1.5-5.7; HR 1.8, 95%CI 1.1-3.1, respectively). Conclusion: In patients with severe AS, plasma BNP and NT-proBNP levels were associated with long-term mortality. The use of these biomarkers to guide treatment might represent an interesting approach that deserves further evaluation. The Journal of Heart Valve Disease 2012;21:331-336

Peptidomic Analysis of HEK293T Cells: Effect of the Proteasome Inhibitor Epoxomicin on Intracellular Peptides

Peptides derived from cytosolic, mitochondrial, and nuclear proteins have been detected in extracts of animal tissues and cell lines. To test whether the proteasome is involved in their formation, HEK293T cells were treated with epoxomicin (0.2 or 2 mu M) for 1 h and quantitative peptidomics analysis was performed. Altogether, 147 unique peptides were identified by mass spectrometry sequence analysis. Epoxomicin treatment decreased the levels of the majority of intracellular peptides, consistent with inhibition of the proteasome beta-2 and beta-5 subunits. Treatment with the higher concentration of epoxomicin elevated the levels of some peptides. Most of the elevated peptides resulted from cleavages at acidic residues, suggesting that epoxomicin increased the processing of proteins through the beta-1 subunit. Interestingly, some of the peptides that were elevated by the epoxomicin treatment had hydrophobic residues in P1 cleavage sites. Taken together, these findings suggest that, while the proteasome is the major source of intracellular peptides, other peptide-generating mechanisms exist. Because intracellular peptides are likely to perform intracellular functions, studies using proteasome inhibitors need to be interpreted with caution, as it is possible that the effects of these inhibitors are due to a change in the peptide levels rather than inhibition of protein degradation.

P16-39. T cell recognition of autologous and non-autologous HIV-1 protease peptides by HIV-1 infected patients undergoing PI therapy

NIH, ICGEB, FAPESP, CNPq

Antimicrobial peptides and nitric oxide production by neutrophils from periodontitis subjects

Neutrophils play an important role in periodontitis by producing nitric oxide (NO) and antimicrobial peptides, molecules with microbicidal activity via oxygen-dependent and -independent mechanisms, respectively. It is unknown whether variation in the production of antimicrobial peptides such as LL-37, human neutrophil peptides (HNP) 1-3, and NO by neutrophils influences the pathogenesis of periodontal diseases. We compared the production of these peptides and NO by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated neutrophils isolated from healthy subjects and from patients with periodontitis. Peripheral blood neutrophils were cultured with or without Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans-LPS (Aa-LPS), Porphyromonas gingivalis-LPS (Pg-LPS) and Escherichia coli-LPS (Ec-LPS). qRT-PCR was used to determine quantities of HNP 1-3 and LL-37 mRNA in neutrophils. Amounts of HNP 1-3 and LL-37 proteins in the cell culture supernatants were also determined by ELISA. In addition, NO levels in neutrophil culture supernatants were quantitated by the Griess reaction. Neutrophils from periodontitis patients cultured with Aa-LPS, Pg-LPS and Ec-LPS expressed higher HNP 1-3 mRNA than neutrophils from healthy subjects. LL-37 mRNA expression was higher in neutrophils from patients stimulated with Aa-LPS. Neutrophils from periodontitis patients produced significantly higher LL-37 protein levels than neutrophils from healthy subjects when stimulated with Pg-LPS and Ec-LPS, but no difference was observed in HNP 1-3 production. Neutrophils from periodontitis patients cultured or not with Pg-LPS and Ec-LPS produced significantly lower NO levels than neutrophils from healthy subjects. The significant differences in the production of LL-37 and NO between neutrophils from healthy and periodontitis subjects indicate that production of these molecules might influence individual susceptibility to important periodontal pathogens.

Structure determination of proteins and peptides in solution: simulation, chirality and NMR studies

The study of protein fold is a central problem in life science, leading in the last years to several attempts for improving our knowledge of the protein structures. In this thesis this challenging problem is tackled by means of molecular dynamics, chirality and NMR studies. In the last decades, many algorithms were designed for the protein secondary structure assignment, which reveals the local protein shape adopted by segments of amino acids. In this regard, the use of local chirality for the protein secondary structure assignment was demonstreted, trying to correlate as well the propensity of a given amino acid for a particular secondary structure. The protein fold can be studied also by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) investigations, finding the average structure adopted from a protein. In this context, the effect of Residual Dipolar Couplings (RDCs) in the structure refinement was shown, revealing a strong improvement of structure resolution. A wide extent of this thesis is devoted to the study of avian prion protein. Prion protein is the main responsible of a vast class of neurodegenerative diseases, known as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), present in mammals, but not in avian species and it is caused from the conversion of cellular prion protein to the pathogenic misfolded isoform, accumulating in the brain in form of amiloyd plaques. In particular, the N-terminal region, namely the initial part of the protein, is quite different between mammal and avian species but both of them contain multimeric sequences called Repeats, octameric in mammals and hexameric in avians. However, such repeat regions show differences in the contained amino acids, in particular only avian hexarepeats contain tyrosine residues. The chirality analysis of avian prion protein configurations obtained from molecular dynamics reveals a high stiffness of the avian protein, which tends to preserve its regular secondary structure. This is due to the presence of prolines, histidines and especially tyrosines, which form a hydrogen bond network in the hexarepeat region, only possible in the avian protein, and thus probably hampering the aggregation.

Pyrolysis of peptides and proteins. Analytical study and environmental applications

Analytical pyrolysis was used to investigate the formation of diketopiperazines (DKPs) which are cyclic dipeptides formed from the thermal degradation of proteins. A quali/quantitative procedure was developed combining microscale flash pyrolysis at 500 °C with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of DKPs trapped onto an adsorbent phase. Polar DKPs were silylated prior to GC-MS. Particular attention was paid to the identification of proline (Pro) containing DKPs due to their greater facility of formation. The GC-MS characteristics of more than 80 original and silylated DKPs were collected from the pyrolysis of sixteen linear dipeptides and four model proteins (e.g. bovine serum albumin, BSA). The structure of a novel DKP, cyclo(pyroglutamic-Pro) was established by NMR and ESI-MS analysis, while the structures of other novel DKPs remained tentative. DKPs resulted rather specific markers of amino acid sequence in proteins, even though the thermal degradation of DKPs should be taken into account. Structural information of DKPs gathered from the pyrolysis of model compounds was employed to the identification of these compounds in the pyrolysate of proteinaceous samples, including intrinsecally unfolded protein (IUP). Analysis of the liquid fraction (bio-oil) obtained from the pyrolysis of microalgae Nannochloropsis gaditana, Scenedesmus spp with a bench scale reactor showed that DKPs constituted an important pool of nitrogen-containing compounds. Conversely, the level of DKPs was rather low in the bio-oil of Botryococcus braunii. The developed micropyrolysis procedure was applied in combination with thermogravimetry (TGA) and infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) to investigate surface interaction between BSA and synthetic chrysotile. The results showed that the thermal behavior of BSA (e.g. DKPs formation) was affected by the different form of doped synthetic chrysotile. The typical DKPs evolved from collagen were quantified in the pyrolysates of archaeological bones from Vicenne Necropolis in order to evaluate their conservation status in combination with TGA, FTIR and XRD analysis.

Synthesis of Modified Amino Acids and Insertion in Peptides and Mimetics. Structural Aspects and Impact on Biological Activity.

I studied the effects exerted by the modifications on structures and biological activities of the compounds so obtained. I prepared peptide analogues containing unusual amino acids such as halogenated, alkylated (S)- or (R)-tryptophans, useful for the synthesis of mimetics of the endogenous opioid peptide endomorphin-1, or 2-oxo-1,3-oxazolidine-4-carboxylic acids, utilized as pseudo-prolines having a clear all-trans configuration of the preceding peptide bond. The latter gave access to a series of constrained peptidomimetics with potential interest in medicinal chemistry and in the field of the foldamers. In particular, I have dedicated much efforts to the preparation of cyclopentapeptides containing D-configured, alfa-, or beta-aminoacids, and also of cyclotetrapeptides including the retro-inverso modification. The conformational analyses confirmed that these cyclic compounds can be utilized as rigid scaffolds mimicking gamma- or beta-turns, allowing to generate new molecular and 3D diversity. Much work has been dedicated to the structural analysis in solution and in the receptor-bound state, fundamental for giving a rationale to the experimentally determined bioactivity, as well as for predicting the activity of virtual compounds (in silico pre-screen). The conformational analyses in solution has been done mostly by NMR (2D gCosy, Roesy, VT, molecular dynamics, etc.). A special section is dedicated to the prediction of plausible poses of the ligands when bound to the receptors by Molecular Docking. This computational method proved to be a powerful tool for the investigation of ligand-receptor interactions, and for the design of selective agonists and antagonists. Another practical use of cyclic peptidomimetics was the synthesis and biological evaluation of cyclic analogues of endomorphin-1 lacking in a protonable amino group. The studies revealed that a inverse type II beta-turn on D-Trp-Phe constituted the bioactive conformation.

Development of new therapeutic approaches in the treatments of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: functional food and nutraceuticals vs synthetic peptides based vaccines

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) are intestinal chronic relapsing diseases which ethiopathogenesis remains uncertain. Several group have attempted to study the role of factors involved such as genetic susceptibility, environmental factors such as smoke, diet, sex, immunological factors as well as the microbioma. None of the treatments available satisfy several criteria at the same time such as safety, long-term remission, histopatological healing, and specificity. We used two different approaches for the development of new therapeutic treatment for Inflammatory Bowel Disease. The first is focused on the understanding of the potential role of functional food and nutraceuticals nutrients in the treatment of IBD. To do so, we investigated the role of Curcuma longa in the treatment of chemical induced colitis in mice model. Since Curcma Longa has been investigated for its antinflammatory role related to the TNFα pathway as well investigators have reported few cases of patients with ulcerative colites treated with this herbs, we harbored the hypothesis of a role of Curcuma Longa in the treatment f IBD as well as we decided to assess its role in intestinal motility. The second part is based on an immunological approach to develop new drugs to induce suppression in Crohn’s disease or to induce mucosa immunity such as in colonrectal tumor. The main idea behind this approach is that we could manipulate relevant cell-cell interactions using synthetic peptides. We demonstrated the role of the unique interaction between molecules expressed on intestinal epithelial cells such as CD1d and CEACAM5 and on CD8+ T cells. In normal condition this interaction has a role for the expansion of the suppressor CD8+ T cells. Here, we characterized this interaction, we defined which are the epitope involved in the binding and we attempted to develop synthetic peptides from the N domain of CEACAM5 in order to manipulate it.

Production of bioactive peptides through sequencial action of Yarrowia lipolytica proteases and chemical glycation

This PhD thesis is aimed at studying the suitability of proteases realised by Yarrowia lipolytica to hydrolyse proteins of different origins available as industrial food by-products. Several strains of Y. lipolytica have been screened for the production of extracellular proteases by zymography. On the basis of the results some strains released only a protease having a MW of 37 kDa, which corresponds to the already reported acidic protease, while other produced prevalently or only a protease with a MW higher than 200 kDa. The proteases have been screened for their "cold attitude" on gelatin, gluten and skim milk. This property can be relevant from a biotechnological point of view in order to save energy consumption during industrial processes. Most of the strains used were endowed with proteolytic activity at 6 °C on all the three proteins. The proteolytic breakdown profiles of the proteins, detected at 27 °C, were different related to the specific strains of Y. lipolytica. The time course of the hydrolysis, tested on gelatin, affected the final bioactivities of the peptide mixtures produced. In particular, an increase in both the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities was detected when the protease of the strain Y. lipolytica 1IIYL4A was used. The final part of this work was focused on the improvement of the peptides bioactivities through a novel process based on the production of glycopeptides. Firstly, the main reaction parameters were optimized in a model system, secondly a more complex system, based on gluten hydrolysates, was taken into consideration to produce glycopeptides. The presence of the sugar moiety reduced the hydrophobicity of the glycopeptides, thus affecting the final antimicrobial activity which was significantly improved. The use of this procedure could be highly effective to modify peptides and can be employed to create innovative functional peptides using a mild temperature process.

Coarse-grained peptide models: conformational sampling, peptide association and dynamical properties for peptides

In dieser Arbeit wird ein vergröbertes (engl. coarse-grained, CG) Simulationsmodell für Peptide in wässriger Lösung entwickelt. In einem CG Verfahren reduziert man die Anzahl der Freiheitsgrade des Systems, so dass manrngrössere Systeme auf längeren Zeitskalen untersuchen kann. Die Wechselwirkungspotentiale des CG Modells sind so aufgebaut, dass die Peptid Konformationen eines höher aufgelösten (atomistischen) Modells reproduziert werden.rnIn dieser Arbeit wird der Einfluss unterschiedlicher bindender Wechsel-rnwirkungspotentiale in der CG Simulation untersucht, insbesondere daraufhin,rnin wie weit das Konformationsgleichgewicht der atomistischen Simulation reproduziert werden kann. Im CG Verfahren verliert man per Konstruktionrnmikroskopische strukturelle Details des Peptids, zum Beispiel, Korrelationen zwischen Freiheitsgraden entlang der Peptidkette. In der Dissertationrnwird gezeigt, dass diese “verlorenen” Eigenschaften in einem Rückabbildungsverfahren wiederhergestellt werden können, in dem die atomistischen Freiheitsgrade wieder in die CG-Strukturen eingefügt werden. Dies gelingt, solange die Konformationen des CG Modells grundsätzlich gut mit der atomistischen Ebene übereinstimmen. Die erwähnten Korrelationen spielen einerngrosse Rolle bei der Bildung von Sekundärstrukturen und sind somit vonrnentscheidender Bedeutung für ein realistisches Ensemble von Peptidkonformationen. Es wird gezeigt, dass für eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen CG und atomistischen Kettenkonformationen spezielle bindende Wechselwirkungen wie zum Beispiel 1-5 Bindungs- und 1,3,5-Winkelpotentiale erforderlich sind. Die intramolekularen Parameter (d.h. Bindungen, Winkel, Torsionen), die für kurze Oligopeptide parametrisiert wurden, sind übertragbarrnauf längere Peptidsequenzen. Allerdings können diese gebundenen Wechselwirkungen nur in Kombination mit solchen nichtbindenden Wechselwirkungspotentialen kombiniert werden, die bei der Parametrisierung verwendet werden, sind also zum Beispiel nicht ohne weiteres mit einem andere Wasser-Modell kombinierbar. Da die Energielandschaft in CG-Simulationen glatter ist als im atomistischen Modell, gibt es eine Beschleunigung in der Dynamik. Diese Beschleunigung ist unterschiedlich für verschiedene dynamische Prozesse, zum Beispiel für verschiedene Arten von Bewegungen (Rotation und Translation). Dies ist ein wichtiger Aspekt bei der Untersuchung der Kinetik von Strukturbildungsprozessen, zum Beispiel Peptid Aggregation.rn

Simulations of amphiphilic peptides at the air-water interface

Amphiphile Peptide, Pro-Glu-(Phe-Glu)n-Pro, Pro-Asp-(Phe-Asp)n-Pro, und Phe-Glu-(Phe-Glu)n-Phe, können so aus n alternierenden Sequenzen von hydrophoben und hydrophilen Aminosäuren konstruiert werden, dass sie sich in Monolagen an der Luft-Wasser Grenzfläche anordnen. In biologischen Systemen können Strukturen an der organisch-wässrigen Grenzfläche als Matrix für die Kristallisation von Hydroxyapatit dienen, ein Vorgang der für die Behandlung von Osteoporose verwendet werden kann. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Computersimulationenrneingesetzt, um die Strukturen und die zugrunde liegenden Wechselwirkungen welche die Aggregation der Peptide auf mikroskopischer Ebene steuern, zu untersuchen. Atomistische Molekulardynamik-Simulationen von einzelnen Peptidsträngen zeigen, dass sie sich leicht an der Luft-Wasser Grenzfläche anordnen und die Fähigkeit haben, sich in β-Schleifen zu falten, selbst für relativ kurze Peptidlängen (n = 2). Seltene Ereignisse wie diese (i.e. Konformationsänderungen) erfordern den Einsatz fortgeschrittener Sampling-Techniken. Hier wurde “Replica Exchange” Molekulardynamik verwendet um den Einfluss der Peptidsequenzen zu untersuchen. Die Simulationsergebnisse zeigten, dass Peptide mit kürzeren azidischen Seitenketten (Asp vs. Glu) gestrecktere Konformationen aufwiesen als die mit längeren Seitenketten, die in der Lage waren die Prolin-Termini zu erreichen. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich, dass die Prolin-Termini (Pro vs. Phe) notwendig sind, um eine 2D-Ordnung innerhalb derrnAggregate zu erhalten. Das Peptid Pro-Asp-(Phe-Asp)n-Pro, das beide dieser Eigenschaften enthält, zeigt das geordnetste Verhalten, eine geringe Verdrehung der Hauptkette, und ist in der Lage die gebildeten Aggregate durch Wasserstoffbrücken zwischen den sauren Seitenketten zu stabilisieren. Somit ist dieses Peptid am besten zur Aggregation geeignet. Dies wurde auch durch die Beurteilung der Stabilität von experimentnah-aufgesetzten Peptidaggregaten, sowie der Neigung einzelner Peptide zur Selbstorganisation von anfänglich ungeordneten Konfigurationen unterstützt. Da atomistische Simulationen nur auf kleine Systemgrößen und relativ kurze Zeitskalen begrenzt sind, wird ein vergröbertes Modell entwickelt damit die Selbstorganisation auf einem größeren Maßstab studiert werden kann. Da die Selbstorganisation an der Grenzfläche vonrnInteresse ist, wurden existierenden Vergröberungsmethoden erweitert, um nicht-gebundene Potentiale für inhomogene Systeme zu bestimmen. Die entwickelte Methode ist analog zur iterativen Boltzmann Inversion, bildet aber das Update für das Interaktionspotential basierend auf der radialen Verteilungsfunktion in einer Slab-Geometrie und den Breiten des Slabs und der Grenzfläche. Somit kann ein Kompromiss zwischen der lokalen Flüssigketsstruktur und den thermodynamischen Eigenschaften der Grenzfläche erreicht werden. Die neue Methode wurde für einen Wasser- und einen Methanol-Slab im Vakuum demonstriert, sowie für ein einzelnes Benzolmolekül an der Vakuum-Wasser Grenzfläche, eine Anwendung die von besonderer Bedeutung in der Biologie ist, in der oft das thermodynamische/Grenzflächenpolymerisations-Verhalten zusätzlich der strukturellen Eigenschaften des Systems erhalten werden müssen. Daraufrnbasierend wurde ein vergröbertes Modell über einen Fragment-Ansatz parametrisiert und die Affinität des Peptids zur Vakuum-Wasser Grenzfläche getestet. Obwohl die einzelnen Fragmente sowohl die Struktur als auch die Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilungen an der Grenzfläche reproduzierten, diffundierte das Peptid als Ganzes von der Grenzfläche weg. Jedoch führte eine Reparametrisierung der nicht-gebundenen Wechselwirkungen für eines der Fragmente der Hauptkette in einem Trimer dazu, dass das Peptid an der Grenzfläche blieb. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass die Kettenkonnektivität eine wichtige Rolle im Verhalten des Petpids an der Grenzfläche spielt.