Intellectual property and climate change: Inventing clean technologies

In the wake of the international summits in Copenhagen and Cancún, there is an urgent need to consider the role of intellectual property law in encouraging research, development, and diffusion of clean technologies to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change. This book charts the patent landscapes and legal conflicts emerging in a range of fields of innovation – including renewable forms of energy, such as solar power, wind power, and geothermal energy; as well as biofuels, green chemistry, green vehicles, energy efficiency, and smart grids. As well as reviewing key international treaties, this book provides a detailed analysis of current trends in patent policy and administration in key nation states, and offers clear recommendations for law reform. It considers such options as technology transfer, compulsory licensing, public sector licensing, and patent pools; and analyses the development of Climate Innovation Centres, the Eco-Patent Commons, and environmental prizes, such as the L-Prize, the H-Prize, and the X-Prizes. This book will have particular appeal to policy-makers given its focus upon recent legislative developments and reform proposals, as well as legal practitioners by developing a better understanding of recent legal, scientific, and business developments, and how they affect their practice. Innovators, scientists and researchers will also benefit from reading this book.

Using genetic algorithm in profile-based assignment of applications to virtual machines for greener data centers

The increase in data center dependent services has made energy optimization of data centers one of the most exigent challenges in today's Information Age. The necessity of green and energy-efficient measures is very high for reducing carbon footprint and exorbitant energy costs. However, inefficient application management of data centers results in high energy consumption and low resource utilization efficiency. Unfortunately, in most cases, deploying an energy-efficient application management solution inevitably degrades the resource utilization efficiency of the data centers. To address this problem, a Penalty-based Genetic Algorithm (GA) is presented in this paper to solve a defined profile-based application assignment problem whilst maintaining a trade-off between the power consumption performance and resource utilization performance. Case studies show that the penalty-based GA is highly scalable and provides 16% to 32% better solutions than a greedy algorithm.

A mathematical model for intermittent microwave convective (IMCD) drying of food materials

Intermittent microwave convective drying (IMCD) is an advanced technology that improves both energy efficiency and food quality in drying. Modelling of IMCD is essential to understand the physics of this advanced drying process and to optimize the microwave power level and intermittency during drying. However, there is still a lack of modelling studies dedicated to IMCD. In this study, a mathematical model for IMCD was developed and validated with experimental data. The model showed that the interior temperature of the material was higher than the surface in IMCD, and that the temperatures fluctuated and redistributed due to the intermittency of the microwave power. This redistribution of temperature could significantly contribute to the improvement of product quality during IMCD. Limitations when using Lambert's Law for microwave heat generation were identified and discussed.

Household carbon emission research: An analytical review of measurement, influencing factors and mitigation prospects

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are simultaneously exhausting the world's supply of fossil fuels and threatening the global climate. In many developing countries, significant improvement in living standards in recent years due to the accelerating development of their economies has resulted in a disproportionate increase in household energy consumption. Therefore, a major reduction in household carbon emissions (HCEs) is essential if global carbon reduction targets are to be met. To do this, major Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) states have already implemented policies to alleviate the negative environmental effects of household behaviors and less carbon-intensive technologies are also proposed to promote energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions. However, before any further remedial actions can be contemplated, though, it is important to fully understand the actual causes of such large HCEs and help researchers both gain deep insights into the development of the research domain and identify valuable research topics for future study. This paper reviews existing literature focusing on the domain of HCEs. This critical review provides a systematic understanding of current work in the field, describing the factors influencing HCEs under the themes of household income, household size, age, education level, location, gender and rebound effects. The main quantification methodologies of input–output models, life cycle assessment and emission coefficient methods are also presented, and the proposed measures to mitigate HCEs at the policy, technology and consumer levels. Finally, the limitations of work done to date and further research directions are identified for the benefit of future studies.

Evaluating the potential use of direct evaporative cooling in Australia

Greenhouse gas emissions and associated global climate change are a significant and growing concern for the world community. In order to improve building energy efficiency, the use of evaporative cooling systems is attracting growing attention. Using a climate assessment tool, the potential use of direct evaporative coolers over different Australian climates is evaluated. It is found that overall, the potential use of direct evaporative cooling is very significant in Australian climates. Among all the eight capital cities across Australia, except for Darwin, the need of hybrid cooling for other cities is found to be insignificant,and is less than 5% if appropriate air circulation is provided on hot/warm days. It is also found that the potential use of evaporative cooling can be significantly influenced by a change in the applications or design parameters. In Brisbane, it is estimated that with an increase of sensible cooling load from 30 W/m2 to 40 W/m2 in the conditioned space, the requirement in hours of hybrid cooling can increase significantly, from 4.06% to 14.89%.

Variation in tracheid cross-sectional dimensions and wood viscoelasticity extent and control methods

Printing papers have been the main product of the Finnish paper industry. To improve properties and economy of printing papers, controlling of tracheid cross-sectional dimensions and wood viscoelasticity are examined in this study. Controlling is understood as any procedure which yields raw material classes with distinct properties and small internal variation. Tracheid cross-sectional dimensions, i.e., cell wall thickness and radial and tangential diameters can be controlled with methods such as sorting wood into pulpwood and sawmill chips, sorting of logs according to tree social status and fractionation of fibres. These control methods were analysed in this study with simulations, which were based on measured tracheid cross-sectional dimensions. A SilviScan device was used to measure the data set from five Norway spruce (Picea abies) and five Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) trunks. The simulation results indicate that the sawmill chips and top pulpwood assortments have quite similar cross-sectional dimensions. Norway spruce and Scots pine are on average also relatively similar in their cross-sectional dimensions. The distributions of these species are somewhat different, but from a practical point of view, the differences are probably of minor importance. The controlling of tracheid cross-sectional dimensions can be done most efficiently with methods that can separate fibres into earlywood and latewood. Sorting of logs or partitioning of logs into juvenile and mature wood were markedly less efficient control methods than fractionation of fibres. Wood viscoelasticity affects energy consumption in mechanical pulping, and is thus an interesting control target when improving energy efficiency of the process. A literature study was made to evaluate the possibility of using viscoelasticity in controlling. The study indicates that there is considerable variation in viscoelastic properties within tree species, but unfortunately, the viscoelastic properties of important raw material lots such as top pulpwood or sawmill chips are not known. Viscoelastic properties of wood depend mainly on lignin, but also on microfibrillar angle, width of cellulose crystals and tracheid cross-sectional dimensions.

Comparative study on green building supportive policies of pacific-rim countries most vulnerable to climate change

- Problem Climate change is affecting the world in numerous ways such as increased temperatures, sea level rise, and increased droughts and floods. Governments worldwide, especially in the most vulnerable countries, are urged to seek better solutions for sustainable development. The construction industry and buildings have enormous impacts on humans and the environment, meaning green building must be one of the solutions. Government involvement is widely considered as one of the essential and most effective ways to promote green building and drive the construction market towards sustainability. This paper will review green building policy of the Pacific-Rim countries that are most vulnerable to climate change according to the recent Standard and Poor’s ranking, including: Cambodia, Vietnam, Fiji, Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. Methodology: This paper will review policy related publications including journal and conference papers, portal websites of governments, legislation documents and reports of international organisations. It will focus on the policies and governmental instruments that support the adoption of green building practices. - Findings All six governments have launched climate change adaptation policies, showing a great concern regarding the damages caused by the phenomenon. All countries except Papua New Guinea have promulgated energy efficiency policy and programs which indirectly promote the adoption of green building practices. The comparison study shows that Philippines and Indonesia motivate the adoption of renewable energy generation, energy efficiency and green building through either financial or advocacy instruments, while other four countries tend to implement regulatory tools to mandate energy conservation. Through comparison, Cambodia and Vietnam – the two countries providing vision to develop green building - can learn from Philippines and Indonesia’s policy and instruments. - Research limitations Language differences between the countries and limit of formal sources may pose difficulties in searching for information. While much English language literature exists, sources from Cambodia, Philippines and Indonesia are less accessible. - Takeaway for practice As the paper provides more understanding about the supportive policy of those countries, it will introduce more opportunities for green property developers to invest in construction markets of those Pacific-Rim countries. - Originality There is little research reviewing green building supportive policies of developing and less-wealthy countries that are forecasted to be most vulnerable and most impacted by climate change. The originality of this paper lies in its investigation on how those countries intend to respond to this phenomenon and whether and to what extent they support the green building market by using policy tools.

Reducing luminance contrast on the window wall and users’ interventions in an office room

High luminance contrast between windows and surrounding surfaces could cause discomfort glare, which could reduce office workers’ productivity. It might also increase energy usage of buildings due to occupants’ interventions in lighting conditions to improve indoor visual quality. It is presumed that increasing the luminance of the areas surrounding the windows using a supplementary system, such Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), could reduce discomfort glare. This paper reports on the results of a pilot study in a conventional office in Brisbane, Australia. The outcomes of this study indicated that a supplementary LED system could reduce the luminance contrast on the window wall from values in the order of 24:1 to 12:1. The results suggest that this reduction could significantly reduce discomfort glare from windows, as well as diminishing the likelihood of users’ intention to turn on the ceiling lights and/ or to move the blind down.

Multiphase porous media model for Intermittent Microwave Convective Drying (IMCD) of food

Intermittent microwave convective (IMCD) drying is an advanced drying technology that improves both energy efficiency and food quality during the drying of food materials. Despite numerous experimental studies available for IMCD, there is no complete multiphase porous media model available to describe the process. A multiphase porous media model considering liquid water, gases and the solid matrix inside the food during drying can provide in depth understanding of IMCD. In this article, firstly a multiphase porous media model was developed for IMCD. Then the model is validated against experimental data by comparing moisture content and temperature distributions after each heating and tempering periods. The profile of vapour pressures and evaporation during IMCD are presented and discussed. The relative contribution of water and vapour fluxes due to gas pressure and diffusion demonstrated that the fluxes due are relatively higher in IMCD compared to convection drying and this makes the IMCD faster.

Low-impact Use: A New Standard

Once the ugly duckling of the lighting world, the fluorescent bulb recently has become something of an eco-darling thanks to its energy efficiency. Whereas a standard off-the-shelf incandescent bulb devotes only about five percent of its total electrical consumption to produce visible light (the remainder is released in heat), fluorescent lighting employs an entirely different process (it radiates rather than burns) that is four to six times more efficient. Fluorescents are indisputably superior in ­performance, but up to 5 milligrams of mercury, a hazardous trace metal, is included in the manufacture of each lamp

Decomposition analysis to examine Australia’s 2030 GHGs emissions target: How hard will it be to achieve?

The Australian government has recently pledged a reduction in GHGs emissions of 26–28% below the 2005 level by 2030. How big is the challenge for the country to achieve this target in terms of its present emissions profile, recent historical trends, and the contributions to those trends from key proximate factors contributing to emissions? In this paper, we attempt a quantitative judgement of the challenge by using decomposition analysis. Based on the analysis it appears the announced target will be quite challenging to achieve if the average annual mitigating effects from economic restructuring, energy efficiency improvements and movement towards less emissions-intensive energy sources in evidence over 2002–2013 continued through to 2030; however, if the contribution from these mitigating sources in evidence over 2006–2013 can be sustained, achievement of the target will be much less challenging. The challenge for government then will be to provide a policy framework to ensure the more pronounced beneficial impacts of the mitigating factors evidenced during 2006–2013 can be maintained over the years to 2030.

Climate change, sustainable development and India: Global and national concerns

Climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges, with implications for food production, water supply, health, energy, etc. Addressing climate change requires a good scientific understanding as well as coordinated action at national and global level. This paper addresses these challenges. Historically, the responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions' increase lies largely with the industrialized world, though the developing countries are likely to be the source of an increasing proportion of future emissions. The projected climate change under various scenarios is likely to have implications on food production, water supply, coastal settlements, forest ecosystems, health, energy security, etc. The adaptive capacity of communities likely to be impacted by climate change is low in developing countries. The efforts made by the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol provisions are clearly inadequate to address the climate change challenge. The most effective way to address climate change is to adopt a sustainable development pathway by shifting to environmentally sustainable technologies and promotion of energy efficiency, renewable energy, forest conservation, reforestation, water conservation, etc. The issue of highest importance to developing countries is reducing the vulnerability of their natural and socio-economic systems to the projected climate change. India and other developing countries will face the challenge of promoting mitigation and adaptation strategies, bearing the cost of such an effort, and its implications for economic development.

Demi-glace-kastikepohjan valmistuksen optimointi ylipainekeittomenetelmälle

Tämän tutkimuksen kirjallisuusosan tavoitteena oli selvittää perinteisen kastikepohjan valmistukseen ja valmistuksen kokonaisvaltaiseen onnistumiseen vaikuttavia seikkoja. Lisäksi käsiteltiin kastikepohjan valmistukseen liittyviä ympäristö- ja energia-asioita, kuten eläinperäisten sivutuotteiden kierrätysmahdollisuuksia. Kokeellisessa osassa tutkimuksen keskeinen lähtökohta oli pyrkiä löytämään ratkaisu ylipainekeittomenetelmään liittyvään kastikepohjan liemiaineksen sameutumisongelmaan. Tutkimuksessa haluttiin löytää syyt sameuden muodostumiseen luiden painekeitossa (max. 1,5 bar). Näin pyrittiin selvittämään keinot sameuden syntymisen estämiseen tai tuotteesta poistamiseen. Ratkaisua etsittiin sekä keittoaika-paine-kombinaatiosta että proteolyyttisen entsyymivalmisteen käytöstä. Tavoitteena oli ulkonäöltään kirkas ja kuiva-ainepitoisuudeltaan mahdollisimman korkea naudanmakuinen demi-glace-kastikepohjaliemi. Liemiaineksista tarkasteltiin kuiva-aine-, kokonaisproteiini- ja sidekudosproteiinipitoisuuksia, pH-arvoja sekä sameutta, ja vertailtiin näitä tuloksia käytettyihin valmistusmenetelmiin ja -olosuhteisiin. Lisäksi otettiin selvää lämmöntalteenoton parantamis-mahdollisuuksista. Tutkimuksessa valmistetun kastikepohjaliemen kuiva-aine koostui pääasiassa proteiineista. Liemen valmistuksessa suuremmalla paineella päästiin hieman nopeammin samoihin kuiva-ainepitoisuuksiin kuin matalammalla paineella. Samoin tapahtui entsyymiä käytettäessä kuin käyttämättä jätettäessä. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella korkeaa kuiva-ainepitoisuutta tavoiteltaessa kastikepohjaliemen valmistuksessa on valittava korkean sidekudosproteiinin tai sameuden väliltä. Ylipainekeitolla luista saatiin irti lähes pelkästään sidekudosproteiinia, koska luita kuumennettaessa vain kollageeni liukeni veteen muiden proteiinien saostuessa. Lämmöntalteenottojärjestelmien rakentaminen pieneen elintarviketeollisuusyritykseen voi olla kannattamatonta, koska investointikustannuksia ei välttämättä pystytä maksamaan takaisin. Energiatehokkuuden parantaminen pienessä elintarviketeollisuusyrityksessä on haastavaa, mutta kuitenkin mahdollista ammattilaisten tekemien tarkkojen laskelmien ja arviointien avulla.

OPSM - Opportunistic Power Save mode for Infrastructure IEEE 802.11 WLAN

We focus on the energy spent in radio communication by the stations (STAs) in an IEEE 802.11 infrastructure WLAN. All the STAs are engaged in web browsing, which is characterized by a short file downloads over TCP, with short duration of inactivity or think time in between two file downloads. Under this traffic, Static PSM (SPSM) performs better than CAM, since the STAs in SPSM can switch to low power state (sleep) during think times while in CAM they have to be in the active state all the time. In spite of this gain, performance of SPSM degrades due to congestion, as the number of STAs associated with the access point (AP) increases. To address this problem, we propose an algorithm, which we call opportunistic PSM (OPSM). We show through simulations that OPSM performs better than SPSM under the aforementioned TCP traffic. The performance gain achieved by OPSM over SPSM increases as the mean file size requested by the STAs or the number of STAs associated with the AP increases. We implemented OPSM in NS-2.33, and to compare the performance of OPSM and SPSM, we evaluate the number of file downloads that can be completed with a given battery capacity and the average time taken to download a file.

Analysis of link-layer backoff schemes on point-to-point Markov fading links

Backoff algorithms are typically employed in multiple-access networks (e.g., Ethernet) to recover from packet collisions. In this letter, we propose and carry out the analysis for three types of link-layer backoff schemes, namely, linear backoff, exponential backoff, and geometric backoff, on point-to-point wireless fading links where packet errors occur nonindependently. In such a scenario, the backoff schemes are shown to achieve better energy efficiency without compromising much on the link layer throughput performance.