The Policy Making Process in FTA Negotiations: A Case Study of Japanese Bilateral EPAs

This paper analyzes Japanese bilateral EPA negotiations, focusing on the areas that each country decided were most important, as well as which actors played the most important roles in each set of negotiations. The negotiations with Mexico and Thailand, which tried to increase agricultural exports to Japan through FTAs, will be discussed. Japan, one should note, still seeks to protect its agricultural sector in spite of the spread of liberalization. The Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia’s efforts to improve and compete in developing their automotive industries, in the face of the completion of AFTA in 2010, are also examined. In addition, this paper discusses whether economic cooperation, the essential Japanese strategy in EPA negotiations, alters the negotiation process in any significant way.

Conflict and land tenure in Rwanda

The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the historical relation between conflict and land tenure in Rwanda, a country that experienced a harsh civil war and genocide in the mid-1990s. The victory of the Tutsi-led rebel, Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) at that time triggered a massive return of refugees and a drastic change in land tenure policy. These were refugees who had fled the country at around the time of independence, in 1962, due to the political turmoil and persecution (the "social revolution") and who shared the background of the core RPF members. The social revolution had dismantled the existent Tutsi-led political order, compelling many Tutsi families to seek refuge outside their homeland. Under the post-independence rule of a Hutu-led government, the Tutsi refugees were not allowed to return and the lands they left behind were often arbitrarily distributed by local authorities among Hutu peasants. After victory in the mid-1990s civil war, the newly established RPF-led government ordered the current inhabitants of the lands to divide the properties in order to allocate portions to the Tutsi returnees. Different patterns of land holding and land division will be explained in the paper from data gathered through the authors' fieldworks in the southern and eastern parts of Rwanda. Although overt resistance to land division has not been observed to date, the land rights of the Tutsi returnees must be considered unstable because their legitimacy depends primarily on the strength and political stability of the RPF-led government. If the authority of RPF were to weaken, the land rights will be jeopardized. Throughout Rwandan history, in which political exclusion has often led to serious conflict, macro-level politics have repeatedly influenced land holding. Promotion of an inclusive democracy, therefore, is indispensable to escape the vicious circle between political instability and land rights.

Gacaca and DDR : the disputable record of state-building in Rwanda

State-building is currently considered to be an indispensable process in overcoming state fragility: a condition characterized by frequent armed conflicts as well as chronic poverty. In this process, both the capacity and the legitimacy of the state are supposed to be enhanced; such balanced development of capacity and legitimacy has also been demanded in security sector reform (SSR), which is regarded as being a crucial part of post-conflict state-building. To enhance legitimacy, the importance of democratic governance is stressed in both state-building and SSR in post-conflict countries. In reality, however, the balanced enhancement of capacity and legitimacy has rarely been realized. In particular, legitimacy enhancement tends to stagnate in countries in which one of multiple warring parties takes a strong grip on state power. This paper tries to understand why such unbalanced development of state-building and SSR has been observed in post-conflict countries, through a case study of Rwanda. Analyses of two policy initiatives in the security sector - Gacaca transitional justice and disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) - indicate that although these programs achieved goals set by the government, their contribution to the normative objectives promoted by the international community was quite debatable. It can be understood that this is because the country has subordinated SSR to its state-building process. After the military victory of the former rebels, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), the ruling elite prioritized the establishment of political stability over the introduction of international norms such as democratic governance and the rule of law. SSR was implemented only to the extent that it contributed to, and did not threaten, Rwanda's RPF-led state-building.

La Gobernanza en las Políticas de la Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo: Análisis y Modelo de Aplicación al Perú

En la primera parte de este trabajo se define la gobernanza como un concepto político que responde adecuadamente a las necesidades sociales de la naturaleza humana. En consecuencia, la adecuada conceptualización de este término puede servir para resolver los problemas sociales y también para orientar hacia el éxito los esfuerzos de la cooperación al desarrollo. Este concepto político resulta particularmente apropiado para la situación actual de la sociedad peruana, donde la existencia de conflictos sociales manifiesta la necesidad de una planificación liderada desde el ámbito público que enfrente la diversidad cultural y social que caracteriza a esta sociedad. Después de un análisis de las políticas de la cooperación internacional en Perú y de las últimas intervenciones para el desarrollo de la gobernanza, es posible concluir que en el país no existe una política para la cooperación internacional; que no hay un enfoque territorial en las intervenciones y que la práctica planificadora no considera una unión entre conocimiento y acción, limitándose a un enfoque tradicional de la planificación en la cooperación para el desarrollo. Esta investigación aporta un modelo para orientar las intervenciones de la cooperación internacional para el desarrollo de la gobernanza que se caracteriza por un liderazgo del ámbito público, una innovación en la gestión de dicho ámbito y un modelo de planificación mixto, una unión del modelo de Análisis de Políticas y el modelo de Aprendizaje Social. Por último, el modelo propuesto puede tener una amplia aplicación en los programas de desarrollo en Perú. On the first part of this research I found that governance is a political concept which responds adequately to social needs of human being. Thus, an adequate conceptualization of governance could help to solve social problems and lead efforts of Development Cooperation to success. This political concept is particularly appropriate to current Peruvian society where exist social conflicts which show a clear necessity of planning which should be leaded by the public sector. This is necessary to face cultural and social diversity which characterize this society. After an analysis of the International Cooperation management in Peru and a review of the last projects for developing governance, I found there is not a Politic for International Cooperation; projects does not have a territorial focusing; and planning does not characterize as union between knowledge and action. In this sense, there is a traditional planning in Development Cooperation. This research contributes with a model to lead International Cooperation projects for developing governance. This model is characterized by a leadership of public sector; an innovation in the public sector management; and a mix planning model between Politics Analysis and Social Learning. Finally, as the model was validated by two International Cooperation projects focused in sectorial objective, this model could have a wide application in Development programs in Peru.

Diseño de una Metodología de Política Pública de I+D+i para el Desarrollo de la Capacidad de la Innovación en el Sector PYMIS del estado Bolívar, Venezuela

El estado Bolívar con una superficie de 238.000 Km2 se encuentra ubicado al SE de Venezuela y su capital es Ciudad Bolívar. Ocupa el 26,24% de la superficie del territorio nacional. Ciudad Guayana es la principal región del desarrollo económico del estado siendo sede de las empresas básicas de los sectores siderúrgicos y del aluminio que se encargan de la extracción, procesamiento y transformación del mineral de hierro y de la transformación de la bauxita en aluminio primario. Además, cuenta con un gran potencial hidroeléctrico, garantizando el suministro de energía eléctrica para el funcionamiento de las empresas básicas, para el parque industrial de la región, así como para el desarrollo industrial, económico y social de la nación. Con relación al sector de la industria del mineral de hierro y del aluminio, las empresas destinan más del 60 por ciento de su producción al mercado internacional. A pesar de que el sector de las Pequeñas y Medianas Industrias (PYMIS) del estado Bolívar cuenta con un mercado cercano y seguro, no se le ha propiciado un desarrollo integral en términos de orientar sus esfuerzos en innovar en nuevos productos o mejoras de procesos. Debido a la falta del personal de investigación calificado, la escasa vinculación con centros de investigación, la baja inversión en investigación, desarrollo tecnológico e innovación (I+D+i), la ausencia de la aplicación de una política pública de I+D+i y la desarticulación de los miembros del Sistema Regional de Innovación (SRI), constituyen los principales obstáculos para generar bienes y servicios con un alto valor agregado. Esta situación desequilibra y hace ineficiente el funcionamiento del SRI. La baja capacidad de las PYMIS del estado Bolívar en I+D+i, es una situación que impide generar por si sola nuevos productos o procesos para satisfacer las demandas del mercado regional. Por lo tanto, se requiere de la intervención y participación activa de la institución gubernamental responsable del diseño y aplicación de una política pública de I+D+i para dinamizar la capacidad de innovación en las PYMIS, en su articulación y vinculación con los miembros del SRI. xiii El presente proyecto se planteó como objetivo diseñar una metodología de política pública de I+D+i para liderar, coordinar y direccionar el SRI del estado Bolívar, para el desarrollo de la capacidad de innovación en el sector industrial y específicamente en las PYMIS. La presente tesis representa una investigación no experimental de tipo proyectivo que analiza la situación actual del Sistema Regional de Innovación del estado Bolívar. El análisis de los resultados se ha dividido en tres fases. En la primera se realizan diagnósticos por medio de encuestas de las PYMIS en materia de I+D+i, de los centros y laboratorios de investigación pertenecientes a las universidades de la región en el área de Materiales y de los sectores financieros público y privado. En dichas encuestas se evalúa el nivel de integración con los entes gubernamentales que definen y administran la política pública de I+D+i. En la segunda fase, con el diagnóstico y procesamiento de los resultados de la primera fase, se procede a desarrollar un análisis de las fortalezas, oportunidades, debilidades y amenazas (FODA) del Sistema Regional de Innovación, permitiendo comprender la situación actual de la relación y vinculación de las PYMIS con los centros de investigación, instituciones financieras y entes gubernamentales. Con la problemática detectada, resultó necesario el diseño de estrategias y un modelo de gestión de política pública de I+D+i para la articulación de los miembros del SRI, para el apoyo de las PYMIS. En la tercera fase se diseña la metodología de política pública de I+D+i para fortalecer la innovación en las PYMIS. La metodología se representa a través de un modelo propuesto que se relaciona con las teorías de los procesos de innovación, con los modelos de sistemas de innovación y con las reflexiones y recomendaciones hechas por diferentes investigadores e instituciones de cooperación internacional referentes a la aplicación de políticas públicas de I+D+i para dinamizar la capacidad de innovación en el sector industrial. La metodología diseñada es comparada con diferentes modelos de aplicación de política pública de I+D+i. Cada modelo se representa en una figura y se analiza su xiv situación presente y la función que desempeña el ente gubernamental en la aplicación del enfoque de política pública de I+D+i. El diseño de la metodología de política pública de I+D+i propuesta aportará nuevos conocimientos y podrá ser aplicado para apoyar el progreso de la I+D+i en las PYMIS de la región, como caso de estudio, con el fin de impulsar una economía más competitiva y reducir el grado de dependencia tecnológica. La metodología una vez evaluada podrá ser empleada en el contexto de la gran industria y en otras regiones de Venezuela y además, puede aplicarse en otros países con características similares en su tejido industrial. En la tesis doctoral se concluye que el desarrollo de la capacidad de innovación en las PYMIS depende del diseño y aplicación de la política pública de I+D+i como elemento dinamizador y articulador del SRI del estado Bolívar. xv ABSTRACT The Bolivar state with an area of 238,000 km2 is located in the SE of Venezuela and its capital is Ciudad Bolivar. It occupies a surface which is 26.24% of the national territory. Ciudad Guayana is the main area of the state's economic development and the location of the corporate headquarters of the basic steel and aluminum sectors that are responsible for the extraction, processing and transformation of iron ore and bauxite processing for primary aluminum. It also has a great hydroelectric potential, ensuring the supply of electricity for the operation of enterprises, for the regional industrial park as well as for the industrial, economic and social development of the nation. With regard to the iron ore and aluminum industry, companies allocate more than 60 percent of their production to the international market. Although the sector of Small and Medium Industries (SMIs) of the Bolivar state has a secure market, it has not been led to an integral development in terms of targeting its efforts on innovating new products or improving processes. Due to the lack of qualified research staff, poor links with research centers, low investment in research, technological development and innovation (R & D & I), the absence of the implementation of a public policy for R & D & I and the dismantling of the members of the Regional Innovation System (RIS), are the main obstacles to generate goods and services with high added value. This situation makes the RIS unbalanced and inefficient. The low capacity of Bolivar state’s SMIs in R & D & I, is a situation that cannot generate by itself new products or processes to meet regional market demands. Therefore, it requires the active involvement and participation of the government institution responsible for the design and implementation of R & D & I public policy to boost the innovation capacity in SMIs, through the connection and integration with members of the RIS. This project is intended to design a methodology aimed at public policy for R & D & I to lead, coordinate and direct the RIS of Bolivar state, for the development of innovation capacity in the industrial sector and specifically in the SMIs. xvi This thesis is an experimental investigation of projective type which analyzes the current situation of the Regional Innovation System of the Bolivar state. The analysis of the results is divided into three phases. In the first one, a diagnosis is performed through surveys of SMIs in R & D & I centers and research laboratories belonging to the universities of the region in the area of materials and public and private financial sectors. In such surveys the level of integration with government agencies that define and manage the public policy of R & D & I is assessed. In the second phase, with the diagnosis and processing of the results of the first phase, we proceed to develop an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of the Regional Innovation System, allowing the comprehension of the current status of the relationship of SMIs with research centers, financial institutions and government agencies. With the problems identified it was necessary to design strategies and a model of public policy management of R & D & I for the articulation of the members of the RIS, to support the SMIs. In the third phase a public policy methodology for R & D & I is designed in order to strengthen innovation in SMIs. The methodology is shown through a proposed model that relates to the theories of the innovation process, with models of innovation systems and with the discussions and recommendations made by different researchers and institutions of international cooperation concerning the implementation of policies public for R & D & I to boost innovation capacity in the industrial sector. The methodology designed is compared with different models of public policy implementation for R & D & I. Each model is represented in a figure and its current situation and the role of the government agency in the implementation of the public policy approach to R & D & I is analyzed. The design of the proposed public policy methodology for R & D & I will provide new knowledge and can be applied to support the progress of R & D & I in the region’s SMIs, as a case study, in order to boost a more competitive economy and reduce the degree of technological dependence. After being evaluated the methodology can be used in the context of big industry and in other regions of Venezuela and can also be applied in other countries with similar characteristics in their industrial structure. xvii The thesis concludes that the development of the innovation capacity in SMIs depends on the design and implementation of the public policy for R & D & I as a catalyst and coordination mechanism of the Regional Innovation System of the Bolivar state.

The Role of Multilateral Coordination in Transport Policy: The Case of the Maghreb Countries

El WCTR es un congreso de reconocido prestigio internacional en el ámbito de la investigación del transporte y aunque las actas publicadas están en formato digital y sin ISSN ni ISBN, lo consideramos lo suficientemente importante como para que se considere en los indicadores. This paper aims at describing how multilateral cooperation policies are influencing national transport policies in developing countries. It considers the evolution of national transport policies and institutional frameworks in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia in the last 10 years, and analyses the influence that EU cooperation programmes (particularly those within the Euromed programme initiative) and international coordination activities have played in the evolution towards efficient, sustainable transport systems in those countries. Notwithstanding the significant socioeconomic, political and institutional differences among the three countries, three major traits are common to the transport policy framework in all cases: a focus on megaprojects; substitution of traditional ministerial services by ad hoc public agencies to develop those megaprojects, and progressive involvement of international private players for the operation (and eventually the design and construction) of new projects, focusing on know-how transfer rather than investment needs. The hypotheses is that these similarities are largely due to the influence of the international cooperation promoted by the European Union since the mid- 1990s. The new decision making situation is characterized by the involvement of two new relevant stakeholders, the EU and a limited number of global transport operators. The hierarchical governance model evolves towards more complex structures, which explain the three common traits mentioned above. International coordination has been crucial for developing national transport visions, which are coherent with a regional, transnational system.

Space demostration of bare electrodynamic tape-tether technology on the sounding rocket S520-25

A spaceflight validation of bare electro dynamic tape tether technology was conducted. A S520-25 sounding rocket was launched successfully at 05:00am on 31 August 2010 and successfully deployed 132.6m of tape tether over 120 seconds in a ballistic flight. The electrodynamic performance of the bare tape tether employed as an atmospheric probe was measured. Flight results are introduced through the present progressive report of the demonstration and the results of flight experiment are examined as the premier report of the international cooperation between Japan, Europe, USA and Australia. Future plans for maturing space tether technology, which will play an important role for future space activities, are also discussed.

Análisis y prospectiva del sector Desarrollo Rural y Seguridad Alimentaria Nutricional desde el enfoque de la Cooperación Española Internacional al Desarrollo

Esta investigación nace de la necesidad de aunar el máximo conocimiento sobre el sector Desarrollo Rural, Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutrición en la Cooperación Española, tanto desde un punto de vista teórico como práctico, que facilite, por un lado, precisar los límites que abarca el sector, conceptuales y de aplicación, mejorando la eficiencia y eficacia de las intervenciones en él, y por otro, conformar una prospectiva del mismo. La tesis propone una metodología de investigación-acción, puesto que por la propia posición de trabajo de la investigadora en la AECID y en el sector, esta es, a la vez, objeto y actora de la realidad vivida y del cambio a futuro. Para el trabajo de campo se ha contado con un importante grupo de expertos en la materia, que han participado en talleres de reflexión y en la encuesta Delphi, así como con una serie de entrevistas en profundidad. El requisito de contar con un marco teórico en el que se sustente el sector es esencial y el capítulo IV contempla este, partiendo de los antecedentes y marco normativo de la política de cooperación española, substancialmente la Ley de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo, pasando por los principales instrumentos de planificación de esta política: Planes Directores, Estrategias sectoriales y Plan de Actuación Sectorial de Desarrollo Rural y Lucha contra el Hambre. Se puntualiza la cooperación reembolsable en el sector, y se repasan las principales actuaciones que han tenido lugar en el contexto internacional con especial hincapié en la crisis provocada por la subida del precio de los alimentos y las medidas más significativas que se tomaron para combatirla, pasando a continuación al proceso post-2015, los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible y la posición española en él. En el marco conceptual se revisan términos tales como Derecho Humano a la Alimentación, Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutrición, Seguridad alimentaria, Seguridad alimentaria nutricional, Soberanía alimentaria, Seguridad alimentaria como Bien Público Mundial, Desarrollo Rural, Desarrollo Rural Territorial, Enfoque Territorial y Resiliencia, concluyendo este apartado con la búsqueda de las interrelaciones entre Seguridad alimentaria, Derecho Humano a la Alimentación y Desarrollo Rural Territorial. El capítulo termina con un breve repaso de lo que hacen en esta materia las principales agencias de Cooperación Internacional de los donantes más importantes del CAD. En el Marco de Aplicación se acomete una comparación de la evolución de la AOD en el marco temporal de la investigación, del 2000 al 2013, concedida al sector por la Cooperación Española en función de los distintos subsectores y también una comparativa de la ayuda otorgada por los principales donantes del CAD para este mismo periodo. Posteriormente se examinan las intervenciones centrales de la Cooperación Española en Derecho Humano a la Alimentación con la sociedad civil, con la FAO y con el relator especial de NNUU para el Derecho a la Alimentación, Seguridad Alimentaria Nutricional, destacando el Fondo España-ODM y el Programa Especial de Seguridad Alimentaria (PESA)y Desarrollo Rural Territorial , sobre el proyecto EXPIDER I y II (Experiencias de desarrollo local rural en América Latina) , y el proyecto PIDERAL ( Proyecto de políticas innovadoras de desarrollo de los territorios rurales en América Latina ) y tres intervenciones con enfoque regional como son :La Iniciativa América Latina y Caribe sin Hambre (IALCSH), la Estrategia Centroamericana de Desarrollo Rural Territorial (ECADERT) y la intervención de la Cooperación Española apoyando la Política Agraria de la CEDEAO. La investigación empírica esencialmente con un enfoque cualitativo, se examina y detalla en el capítulo VI, reflejándose las principales conclusiones de la misma en el capítulo del mismo nombre, tras haber contrastado las hipótesis formuladas y posteriormente cotejar las aplicaciones prácticas de la tesis y proponer posibles nuevas líneas de investigación. ABSTRACT This research stems from the need to combine the best knowledge about the Rural Development, Food Security and Nutrition sectors in Spanish Cooperation, both from a theoretical and practical point of view, that enables, on the one hand, to specify the limits that the sector covers, both conceptual and of implementation, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of interventions in it, and on the other, shape the future thereof. The thesis proposes a methodology of research-action, which is the AECID researcher´s own position in the sector, being at the same time, both researcher and participant of the reality experienced and future change. The field work benefitted from the support of a major group of experts in the field, who participated in reflection workshops, the Delphi survey and a series of in-depth interviews. The requirement for a theoretical framework that sustains the sector is essential and Chapter IV provides for this, starting with the background and legal framework of the policy of Spanish cooperation, essentially the International Development Cooperation Law, through the main instruments of policy planning: Master Plans; sectorial strategies; the Sectorial Action Plan for Rural Development; Fight against hunger. Refundable cooperation in the sector is specified, and the key actions that have taken place in the international context with special emphasis on the crisis caused by rising food prices and the most significant measures taken to combat it are reviewed. Then continuing with the post-2015 process, the Sustainable Development Objectives and the Spanish position in them. Conceptional framework terms such as Human Right to Food, Food Security and Nutrition, Food Security, Nutritional Food Security, Food Sovereignty, Food Security as a global public good, Rural Development, Rural Regional Development, Regional Approach and Resilience are reviewed, ending this section with the search for the interrelationship between Food Security, Human Right to Food and Rural Regional Development. The chapter ends with a brief overview of what the main agencies for International Cooperation of the major DAC donors do in this area. In the implementation framework, a comparison is provided of the evolution of the ODA within the time frame of the investigation, from 2000 to 2013, granted to the sector by the Spanish Cooperation in terms of the various subsectors and also a comparison is made of the support provided by the DAC's major donors for the same period. Subsequently the core interventions of Spanish Cooperation in the Human Right to Food with civil society, with FAO and the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Food Security Nutrition are examined, highlighting the Spain MDG Fund and the Special Programme for Food Security (PESA) and Regional Rural Development on the EXPIDER I and II project (Rural local development experiences in Latin America), and the PIDERAL project (Innovative policy development project of rural areas in Latin America) and three regionally focused interventions such as: the Latin America and Caribbean without Hunger (HFLACI) Initiative, the Central American Strategy for Rural Development (ECADERT) and the intervention of the Spanish Cooperation to support the ECOWAS Agricultural Policy. Empirical research, essentially with a qualitative approach, is examined and detailed in Chapter VI, reflecting the main conclusions of the investigation in the chapter of the same name, after having contrasted the ideas put forward, and then later compares the practical applications of the thesis and proposes possible new lines of research.

Modelado experimental de un sistema de e-Salud aplicado en cooperación al desarrollo

Los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio comprometieron a los países con una nueva alianza mundial de alcanzar gradualmente una cobertura universal de los niveles mínimos de bienestar en los países en desarrollo (reducir la pobreza y el hambre y dar respuesta a problemas como la mala salud, las desigualdades de género, la falta de educación, el acceso a agua salubre y la degradación ambiental). Para dar continuidad a esta iniciativa, recientemente en septiembre de 2015, la ONU promulgó la declaración de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. Los ODM sitúan la salud en el corazón del desarrollo y establecen un novedoso pacto mundial que vincula a los países desarrollados y los países en desarrollo por medio de obligaciones claras y recíprocas. En este sentido, diversos organismos de cooperación a través de sus programas de cooperación internacional, tratan de mejorar el acceso a la asistencia sanitaria, especialmente a la población vulnerable que vive en zonas rurales de países en desarrollo. Con el fin de ayudar a cumplir los ODM que apoyan los temas de salud en dicha población, estos organismos desarrollan proyectos que despliegan sistemas de e-salud. Las intervenciones se enfrentan a múltiples retos: condicionantes de los países en desarrollo, las necesidades y demandas de los sistemas sanitarios y la complejidad de implantar las TIC en entornos complejos y altamente dinámicos como son los países en desarrollo. Estos condicionantes ocasionan la mayoría de proyectos fallidos que terminan convirtiéndose en soluciones aisladas, que anteponen la tecnología a las necesidades de la población y no generan el impacto esperado en su desarrollo. En este contexto tuvo origen esta tesis doctoral, que persigue como objetivo analizar, planificar, diseñar, verificar y validar un marco arquitectónico de implantación de sistemas de e-salud en áreas rurales de países en desarrollo, que promueva el mejoramiento de la calidad de vida de la población vulnerable de estas regiones y la efectividad de las intervenciones de e-salud en el marco de proyectos de cooperación al desarrollo. Para lograrlo, tomé como punto de partida, diversas estrategias, modelos, metodologías de implantación de e-salud, modelos de gestión de proyectos propuestos por distintos organismos internacionales y propuse una instanciación de estos modelos a proyectos de implantación de sistemas de e-salud en países en desarrollo. Apliqué la metodología action research y los enfoques twin track, middle out y design thinking que me permitieron el refinamiento iterativo del modelo propuesto en la tesis doctoral mediante el trabajo de campo realizado en dos zonas rurales de países de Centroamérica: Jocotán (Guatemala) y San José de Cusmapa (Nicaragua). Como resultado obtuve un modelo experimental basado en cuatro componentes: un modelo de referencia tipo, un modelo conceptual de e-salud, los procesos de gestión y de implantación de sistemas de e-salud en países en desarrollo y una arquitectura de referencia. El modelo experimental resultante aporta herramientas importantes para el despliegue de sistemas de e-salud en países en desarrollo. Se ha propuesto un modelo de referencia que proporciona una visión holística del contexto del país en desarrollo donde se desarrollarán las intervenciones. Un modelo conceptual de e-salud que representa los principales conceptos involucrados en un sistema de e-salud. Los procesos ii- de gestión del proyecto y de implantación del sistema que proporcionan a los grupos de cooperación, herramientas para el análisis, diseño, desarrollo y despliegue de los sistemas de e-salud en áreas rurales de países en desarrollo. Y finalmente la arquitectura de referencia que sienta las bases para la aplicación de estos procesos a un contexto en particular. Las líneas futuras de trabajo sugieren extender el modelo a más casos de estudio que permitan su refinamiento y evaluar los futuros usos que pueden surgir de los sistemas de e-salud resultantes. ABSTRACT Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) committing the countries with a new global partnership to achieve universal coverage of minimum levels of well-being in Developing Countries (for addressing extreme poverty in its many dimensions-income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate housing, and exclusion-while promoting gender equality, education, and environmental sustainability). From September 2015, these goals are replaces with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The MDG place health at the heart of development and establish a novel global compact, linking developed and developing countries through clear, reciprocal obligations. Many public and private institutions promote international cooperation programs to support in achieving the MDGs. Some of these cooperation programs deal improving access to healthcare to poor people living in isolated areas from developing countries. In order to accomplish this goal organizations perform projects (interventions or cooperation projects) that deploy e-health systems in these zones. Nevertheless, this kind of projects face multiple challenges that dismiss the effectiveness of the projects results. In particular, cooperation teams face issues such as constraints in developing countries, lack of electrical and ICT infrastructure, scarce transport, extreme climate conditions, lack ICT capacity, lack of access to healthcare and inefficient delivery methods, etc. Hence, these issues increase the complexity of implementing e-health in developing countries and then causes the most projects fail. In other words, the solutions do not meet population needs and do not generate the expected impact on development. This context is the starting point of this doctoral thesis, which deals with analysing, planning, designing, testing and validating an architectural framework in order to implement e-health systems in rural areas from developing countries, promote development of the population in these regions, and thus improve the impact of interventions of development cooperation projects. To achieve this goal, I took as a starting point the strategies, models, e-health implementation methodologies and projects management models proposed by various international agencies. Then I proposed an instantiation of these models to manage the intervention and implement e-health systems in developing countries. I applied the action research methodology and the approaches twin track, middle out and design thinking which allowed me the iterative refinement of the model proposed in this doctoral thesis. The proposed framework was validated by running two cases studies in rural areas of Central America: Jocotán (Guatemala) and San José de Cusmapa (Nicaragua). As a result, I obtained an experimental model based on four components: a Type reference model, an e-health conceptual model, both process management and implementation e-health systems in developing countries and a reference architecture. The resulting experimental model provides important tools for the deployment of e-health systems in developing countries. The model become as reference model that provides a holistic view of the developing countries context where the interventions will be running. The conceptual model of e-health represents the main concepts involved into an e-health system. The project management and implementation processes of the iv- system provide to the cooperation teams with tools for analysing, designing, developing and deploying e-health systems in rural areas from developing countries. Finally, the reference architecture provides the basis for the implementation of these processes into a particular context. The future research suggest the extension the model to other cases studies in order to refine and evaluate the viability the model.

On strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Equity is of fundamental concern in the quest for international cooperation to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations by the reduction of emissions. By modeling the carbon cycle, we estimate the global CO2 emissions that would be required to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of CO2 at levels ranging from 450 to 1,000 ppm. These are compared, on both an absolute and a per-capita basis, to scenarios for emissions from the developed and developing worlds generated by socio-economic models under the assumption that actions to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are not taken. Need and equity have provided strong arguments for developing countries to request that the developed world takes the lead in controlling its emissions, while permitting the developing countries in the meantime to use primarily fossil fuels for their development. Even with major and early control of CO2 emissions by the developed world, limiting concentration to 450 ppm implies that the developing world also would need to control its emissions within decades, given that we expect developing world emissions would otherwise double over this time. Scenarios leading to CO2 concentrations of 550 ppm exhibit a reduction of the developed world's per-capita emission by about 50% over the next 50 years. Even for the higher stabilization levels considered, the developing world would not be able to use fossil fuels for their development in the manner that the developed world has used them.

The current biodiversity extinction event: Scenarios for mitigation and recovery

The current massive degradation of habitat and extinction of species is taking place on a catastrophically short timescale, and their effects will fundamentally reset the future evolution of the planet's biota. The fossil record suggests that recovery of global ecosystems has required millions or even tens of millions of years. Thus, intervention by humans, the very agents of the current environmental crisis, is required for any possibility of short-term recovery or maintenance of the biota. Many current recovery efforts have deficiencies, including insufficient information on the diversity and distribution of species, ecological processes, and magnitude and interaction of threats to biodiversity (pollution, overharvesting, climate change, disruption of biogeochemical cycles, introduced or invasive species, habitat loss and fragmentation through land use, disruption of community structure in habitats, and others). A much greater and more urgently applied investment to address these deficiencies is obviously warranted. Conservation and restoration in human-dominated ecosystems must strengthen connections between human activities, such as agricultural or harvesting practices, and relevant research generated in the biological, earth, and atmospheric sciences. Certain threats to biodiversity require intensive international cooperation and input from the scientific community to mitigate their harmful effects, including climate change and alteration of global biogeochemical cycles. In a world already transformed by human activity, the connection between humans and the ecosystems they depend on must frame any strategy for the recovery of the biota.

Toward a successful multinational crop plant genome initiative

Plant genome research is needed as the foundation for an entirely new level of efficiency and success in the application of genetics and breeding to crop plants and products from crop plants. Genetic improvements in crop plants beyond current capabilities are needed to meet the growing world demand not only for more food, but also a greater diversity of food, higher-quality food, and safer food, produced on less land, while conserving soil, water, and genetic resources. Plant biology research, which is poised for dramatic advances, also depends fundamentally on plant genome research. The current Arabidopsis Genome Project has proved of immediate value to plant biology research, but a much greater effort is needed to ensure the full benefits of plant biology and especially plant genome research to agriculture. International cooperation is critical, both because genome projects are too large for any one country and the information forthcoming is of benefit to the world and not just the countries that do the work. Recent research on grass genomes has revealed that, because of extensive senteny and colinearity within linkage groups that make up the chromosomes, new information on the genome of one grass can be used to understand the genomes and predict the location of genes on chromosomes of the other grasses. Genome research applied to grasses as a group thereby can increase the efficiency and effectiveness of breeding for improvement of each member of this group, which includes wheat, corn, and rice, the world’s three most important sources of food.

Enlaces e entraves para a soberania alimentar e nutricional: movimentos sociais no contexto das relações Brasil-Moçambique nas áreas de alimentação e agricultura

O Brasil tem se apresentado como importante parceiro de Moçambique na execução de projetos por meio da cooperação internacional, notadamente nas áreas afetas à segurança alimentar e nutricional. Há uma forte atuação das empresas brasileiras em setores estratégicos. Uma ampla articulação de atores sociais no país tem apontado caminhos alternativos para enfrentar os desafios do desenvolvimento e globalização. Propõe-se a compreensão sobre a atuação dos movimentos sociais moçambicanos neste contexto. O estudo reconstituiu as definições de segurança alimentar e nutricional e soberania alimentar, identificando seu processo de construção, atores envolvidos e diferentes apropriações. Procurou conhecer as ameaças e desafios à realização do direito humano à alimentação. E, ainda, analisou as práticas sociais em curso, suas características, impasses e conquistas no âmbito local e internacional. Com base na metodologia qualitativa procedeu-se o estudo e análise documental, a realização de visitas técnicas para compreensão do contexto local e a aplicação de entrevistas compreensivas com participantes de movimentos e organizações sociais de Moçambique nas Províncias (Estados) de Maputo e Nampula, ao Sul e Norte, respectivamente. Observou que os movimentos e organizações sociais destinam atenção em graus diferentes em relação às iniciativas desenvolvidas pelo Brasil, possuindo maior relevância as ações em torno da implantação do Programa para o Desenvolvimento Agrícola no Corredor de Nacala (ProSAVANA), em Nampula. Constatou a fragilidade dos mecanismos de participação e controle social em Moçambique na área de segurança alimentar e nutricional. Evidenciou, também, que há uma incorporação ainda incipiente de aspectos relacionados à nutrição na agenda política dos movimentos e organizações sociais. Concluiu que as experiências em cursos têm consolidado um campo de atuação dinâmico, capaz de intervir em processos internacionais de negociação a partir da realidade local.

Reciprocidades nas relações de interdependência: cooperação internacional em saúde

O presente estudo visa analisar o contexto internacional na produção estratégica de insumos nucleares para a área da saúde e como o processo de crescente interação política entre os países influencia na tomada de decisão dos gestores dos sistemas nacionais de saúde, tendo em vista a importância de alcançarem maiores graus de autonomia frente aos oligopólios mundiais que dominam a produção de equipamentos para a saúde. Neste contexto, utilizou-se a abordagem teórica fornecida pelo estudo do Complexo Industrial em Saúde (GADELHA, 2003), que fornece elementos para discutir a interação entre o sistema de saúde e o sistema econômico-industrial, mostrando a dicotomia existente na relação entre ambos, que se exprime na deterioração do potencial de inovação do país e na vulnerabilidade externa da política de saúde. Para tanto, a escolha pela investigação do caso empírico de criação do Reator Multipropósito Brasileiro se deu pelo envolvimento de diferentes setores institucionais no processo e que influenciam diretamente na estruturação de um parque de alta densidade tecnológica e científica ligado à área da saúde que poderiam elevar o país a um patamar diferenciado em termos de cooperação internacional e estratégia geopolítica. Os métodos utilizados incluíram pesquisa bibliográfica sobre o tema e análise de dados secundários que circundam o processo de incorporação da tecnologia estudada

La cooperación sur-sur como nueva dimensión de la política exterior brasileña en el gobierno de Lula: una aproximación constructiva

Over the last decade, we have witnessed a growing number of academic researches that have Brazil and its position in the international system as an object of study, which debate is open, because there is no consensus of its role and intentions: if it is to promote the development and cooperation, or, after all, if it also has international political interests, like greater weight in the international system, greater decision capability, and others typically economics like how to gain market for its companies. Because of its geographical size, its growing economic importance, its visibility for the Brazil 2014 World Cup and the Rio 2016 Olympics, and the political demonstrations in the streets, it is hard to deny the attraction that Brazil is gaining every day. This work was created with several objectives that are tried to be answered along the writing of this thesis: a general objective that generates secondary ones and, at the same time, subsequent collateral objectives. Among the general objectives, we have the purpose of understanding and analyzing how the South-South Cooperation (SSC) is in the wider debate of the International Cooperation for Development (ICD). In this sense, it is necessary to point out the difficulty to trace clear lines of differentiation between the traditional North-South Cooperation (NSC) and the latest SSC. This is because, among other questions, there is not a definition until this moment shared by all the countries participating in it, as well as the lack of database that indicates precisely which are all the 'development partners' emerging. This thesis introduces the debate about international cooperation analyzing the challenges that it faces, the global changes that have come to transform the 'new architecture to development' and to analyze the gaps that Brazil can take with other emerging powers to improve the current and weakened assistance system...