Development of Efficient Techniques for the Analysis and Design of Antennas in Dual-Reflectarray Configuration

This thesis contributes to the analysis and design of printed reflectarray antennas. The main part of the work is focused on the analysis of dual offset antennas comprising two reflectarray surfaces, one of them acts as sub-reflector and the second one acts as mainreflector. These configurations introduce additional complexity in several aspects respect to conventional dual offset reflectors, however they present a lot of degrees of freedom that can be used to improve the electrical performance of the antenna. The thesis is organized in four parts: the development of an analysis technique for dualreflectarray antennas, a preliminary validation of such methodology using equivalent reflector systems as reference antennas, a more rigorous validation of the software tool by manufacturing and testing a dual-reflectarray antenna demonstrator and the practical design of dual-reflectarray systems for some applications that show the potential of these kind of configurations to scan the beam and to generate contoured beams. In the first part, a general tool has been implemented to analyze high gain antennas which are constructed of two flat reflectarray structures. The classic reflectarray analysis based on MoM under local periodicity assumption is used for both sub and main reflectarrays, taking into account the incident angle on each reflectarray element. The incident field on the main reflectarray is computed taking into account the field radiated by all the elements on the sub-reflectarray.. Two approaches have been developed, one which employs a simple approximation to reduce the computer run time, and the other which does not, but offers in many cases, improved accuracy. The approximation is based on computing the reflected field on each element on the main reflectarray only once for all the fields radiated by the sub-reflectarray elements, assuming that the response will be the same because the only difference is a small variation on the angle of incidence. This approximation is very accurate when the reflectarray elements on the main reflectarray show a relatively small sensitivity to the angle of incidence. An extension of the analysis technique has been implemented to study dual-reflectarray antennas comprising a main reflectarray printed on a parabolic surface, or in general in a curved surface. In many applications of dual-reflectarray configurations, the reflectarray elements are in the near field of the feed-horn. To consider the near field radiated by the horn, the incident field on each reflectarray element is computed using a spherical mode expansion. In this region, the angles of incidence are moderately wide, and they are considered in the analysis of the reflectarray to better calculate the actual incident field on the sub-reflectarray elements. This technique increases the accuracy for the prediction of co- and cross-polar patterns and antenna gain respect to the case of using ideal feed models. In the second part, as a preliminary validation, the proposed analysis method has been used to design a dual-reflectarray antenna that emulates previous dual-reflector antennas in Ku and W-bands including a reflectarray as subreflector. The results for the dualreflectarray antenna compare very well with those of the parabolic reflector and reflectarray subreflector; radiation patterns, antenna gain and efficiency are practically the same when the main parabolic reflector is substituted by a flat reflectarray. The results show that the gain is only reduced by a few tenths of a dB as a result of the ohmic losses in the reflectarray. The phase adjustment on two surfaces provided by the dual-reflectarray configuration can be used to improve the antenna performance in some applications requiring multiple beams, beam scanning or shaped beams. Third, a very challenging dual-reflectarray antenna demonstrator has been designed, manufactured and tested for a more rigorous validation of the analysis technique presented. The proposed antenna configuration has the feed, the sub-reflectarray and the main-reflectarray in the near field one to each other, so that the conventional far field approximations are not suitable for the analysis of such antenna. This geometry is used as benchmarking for the proposed analysis tool in very stringent conditions. Some aspects of the proposed analysis technique that allow improving the accuracy of the analysis are also discussed. These improvements include a novel method to reduce the inherent cross polarization which is introduced mainly from grounded patch arrays. It has been checked that cross polarization in offset reflectarrays can be significantly reduced by properly adjusting the patch dimensions in the reflectarray in order to produce an overall cancellation of the cross-polarization. The dimensions of the patches are adjusted in order not only to provide the required phase-distribution to shape the beam, but also to exploit the crosses by zero of the cross-polarization components. The last part of the thesis deals with direct applications of the technique described. The technique presented is directly applicable to the design of contoured beam antennas for DBS applications, where the requirements of cross-polarisation are very stringent. The beam shaping is achieved by synthesithing the phase distribution on the main reflectarray while the sub-reflectarray emulates an equivalent hyperbolic subreflector. Dual-reflectarray antennas present also the ability to scan the beam over small angles about boresight. Two possible architectures for a Ku-band antenna are also described based on a dual planar reflectarray configuration that provides electronic beam scanning in a limited angular range. In the first architecture, the beam scanning is achieved by introducing a phase-control in the elements of the sub-reflectarray and the mainreflectarray is passive. A second alternative is also studied, in which the beam scanning is produced using 1-bit control on the main reflectarray, while a passive subreflectarray is designed to provide a large focal distance within a compact configuration. The system aims to develop a solution for bi-directional satellite links for emergency communications. In both proposed architectures, the objective is to provide a compact optics and simplicity to be folded and deployed.

A low cost and widely applicable methodology of digital imagen analysis of ores for mineral and envirommental engineering

Technological and environmental problems related to ore processing are a serious limitation for sustainable development of mineral resources, particularly for countries / companies rich in ores, but with little access to sophisticated technology, e.g. in Latin America. Digital image analysis (DIA) can provide a simple, unexpensive and broadly applicable methodology to assess these problems, but this methodology has to be carefully defined, to produce reproducible and relevant information.

Improved ore processing assessed by digital image análisis of the ores: a key to the sustainable development of the Iberian Pyrite Belt

Mining in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB), the biggest VMS metallogenetic province known in the world to date, has to face a deep crisis in spite of the huge reserves still known after ≈5 000 years of production. This is due to several factors, as the difficult processing of complex Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag- Au ores, the exhaustion of the oxidation zone orebodies (the richest for gold, in gossan), the scarce demand for sulphuric acid in the world market, and harder environmental regulations. Of these factors, only the first and the last mentioned can be addressed by local ore geologists. A reactivation of mining can therefore only be achieved by an improved and more efficient ore processing, under the constraint of strict environmental controls. Digital image analysis of the ores, coupled to reflected light microscopy, provides a quantified and reliable mineralogical and textural characterization of the ores. The automation of the procedure for the first time furnishes the process engineers with real-time information, to improve the process and to preclude or control pollution; it can be applied to metallurgical tailings as well. This is shown by some examples of the IPB.

Image Processing Challenges in the Creation of Spatiotemporal Gene Expression Atlases of Developing Embryos

To properly understand and model animal embryogenesis it is crucial to obtain detailed measurements, both in time and space, about their gene expression domains and cell dynamics. Such challenge has been confronted in recent years by a surge of atlases which integrate a statistically relevant number of different individuals to get robust, complete information about their spatiotemporal locations of gene patterns. This paper will discuss the fundamental image analysis strategies required to build such models and the most common problems found along the way. We also discuss the main challenges and future goals in the field.

Image Processing Challenges in the Creation of Spatiotemporal Gene Expression Atlases of Developing Embryos

To properly understand and model animal embryogenesis it is crucial to obtain detailed measurements, both in time and space, about their gene expression domains and cell dynamics. Such challenge has been confronted in recent years by a surge of atlases which integrate a statistically relevant number of different individuals to get robust, complete information about their spatiotemporal locations of gene patterns. This paper will discuss the fundamental image analysis strategies required to build such models and the most common problems found along the way. We also discuss the main challenges and future goals in the field.

Image Segmentation Using Ant System-based Clustering Algorithm

Industrial applications of computer vision sometimes require detection of atypical objects that occur as small groups of pixels in digital images. These objects are difficult to single out because they are small and randomly distributed. In this work we propose an image segmentation method using the novel Ant System-based Clustering Algorithm (ASCA). ASCA models the foraging behaviour of ants, which move through the data space searching for high data-density regions, and leave pheromone trails on their path. The pheromone map is used to identify the exact number of clusters, and assign the pixels to these clusters using the pheromone gradient. We applied ASCA to detection of microcalcifications in digital mammograms and compared its performance with state-of-the-art clustering algorithms such as 1D Self-Organizing Map, k-Means, Fuzzy c-Means and Possibilistic Fuzzy c-Means. The main advantage of ASCA is that the number of clusters needs not to be known a priori. The experimental results show that ASCA is more efficient than the other algorithms in detecting small clusters of atypical data.

A static heap analysis for shape and connectivity: Unified memory analysis: The base framework

Modeling the evolution of the state of program memory during program execution is critical to many parallehzation techniques. Current memory analysis techniques either provide very accurate information but run prohibitively slowly or produce very conservative results. An approach based on abstract interpretation is presented for analyzing programs at compile time, which can accurately determine many important program properties such as aliasing, logical data structures and shape. These properties are known to be critical for transforming a single threaded program into a versión that can be run on múltiple execution units in parallel. The analysis is shown to be of polynomial complexity in the size of the memory heap. Experimental results for benchmarks in the Jolden suite are given. These results show that in practice the analysis method is efflcient and is capable of accurately determining shape information in programs that créate and manipúlate complex data structures.

Experimental analysis of the breakage of a liquid bridge under microgravity conditions

The experimental results obtained in experiment “STACO” made on board the Spacelab D-2 are re-visited, with image-analysis tools not then available. The configuration consisted of a liquid bridge between two solid supporting discs. An expected breakage occurred during the experiment. The recorded images are analysed and the measured behaviour compared with the results of a three dimensional model of the liquid dynamics, obtaining a much better fit than with linear models

Monte-Carlo dosimetry on a realistic cell monolayer geometry exposed to alpha particles

The energy and specific energy absorbed in the main cell compartments (nucleus and cytoplasm) in typical radiobiology experiments are usually estimated by calculations as they are not accessible for a direct measurement. In most of the work, the cell geometry is modelled using the combination of simple mathematical volumes. We propose a method based on high resolution confocal imaging and ion beam analysis (IBA) in order to import realistic cell nuclei geometries in Monte-Carlo simulations and thus take into account the variety of different geometries encountered in a typical cell population. Seventy-six cell nuclei have been imaged using confocal microscopy and their chemical composition has been measured using IBA. A cellular phantom was created from these data using the ImageJ image analysis software and imported in the Geant4 Monte-Carlo simulation toolkit. Total energy and specific energy distributions in the 76 cell nuclei have been calculated for two types of irradiation protocols: a 3 MeV alpha particle microbeam used for targeted irradiation and a 239Pu alpha source used for large angle random irradiation. Qualitative images of the energy deposited along the particle tracks have been produced and show good agreement with images of DNA double strand break signalling proteins obtained experimentally. The methodology presented in this paper provides microdosimetric quantities calculated from realistic cellular volumes. It is based on open-source oriented software that is publicly available.

Reliability analysis based on non-dimensional parameters

A reliability analysis method is proposed that starts with the identification of all variables involved. These are divided in three groups: (a) variables fixed by codes, as loads and strength project values, and their corresponding partial safety coefficients, (b) geometric variables defining the dimension of the main elements involved, (c) the cost variables, including the possible damages caused by failure, (d) the random variables as loads, strength, etc., and (e)the variables defining the statistical model, as the family of distribution and its corresponding parameters. Once the variables are known, the II-theorem is used to obtain a minimum equivalent set of non-dimensional variables, which is used to define the limit states. This allows a reduction in the number of variables involved and a better understanding of their coupling effects. Two minimum cost criteria are used for selecting the project dimensions. One is based on a bounded-probability of failure, and the other on a total cost, including the damages of the possible failure. Finally, the method is illustrated by means of an application.

Caracterización automatizada de texturas de menas mediante análisis digital de imagen para su aplicación geometalúrgica

La mineralogía de procesos se ha convertido en los últimos años en una herramienta indispensable dentro del ámbito minero-metalúrgico debido fundamentalmente a la emergencia de la Geometalurgia. Esta disciplina en auge, a través de la integración de datos geológicos, mineros y metalúrgicos, proporciona la información necesaria para que el circuito de concentración mineral pueda responder de manera rápida y eficaz a la variabilidad mineralógica inherente a la geología del yacimiento. Para la generación del modelo geometalúrgico, la mineralogía de procesos debe aportar datos cuantitativos sobre los rasgos mineralógicos influyentes en el comportamiento de los minerales y para ello se apoya en el uso de sistemas de análisis mineralógico automatizado. Estos sistemas son capaces de proporcionar gran cantidad de datos mineralógicos de manera rápida y precisa. Sin embargo, cuando se trata de la caracterización de la textura, el mineralogista debe recurrir a descripciones cualitativas basadas en la observación, ya que los sistemas actuales no ofrecen información textural automatizada. Esta tesis doctoral surge precisamente para proporcionar de manera sistemática información textural relevante para los procesos de concentración mineral. La tesis tiene como objetivo principal la identificación y caracterización del tipo de intercrecimiento que un determinado mineral presenta en las partículas minerales, e inicialmente se han tenido en cuenta los siete tipos de intercrecimiento considerados como los más relevantes bajo el punto de vista del comportamiento de las partículas minerales durante flotación, lixiviación y molienda. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha desarrollado una metodología basada en el diseño y cálculo de una serie de índices numéricos, a los que se ha llamado índices mineralúrgicos, que cumplen una doble función: por un lado, cada índice aporta información relevante para caracterizar los principales rasgos mineralógicos que gobiernan el comportamiento de las partículas minerales a lo largo de los procesos de concentración y por otro lado, estos índices sirven como variables discriminantes para identificar el tipo de intercrecimiento mineral mediante la aplicación de Análisis Discriminante. Dentro del conjunto de índices propuestos en este trabajo, se han considerado algunos índices propuestos por otros autores para su aplicación tanto en el ámbito de la mineralogía como en otros ámbitos de la ciencia de materiales. Se trata del Índice de Contigüidad (Gurland, 1958), Índice de Intercrecimiento (Amstutz y Giger, 1972) e Índice de Coordinación (Jeulin, 1981), adaptados en este caso para el análisis de partículas minerales. El diseño de los índices se ha basado en los principios básicos de la Estereología y el análisis digital de imagen, y su cálculo se ha llevado a cabo aplicando el método de interceptos lineales mediante la programación en MATLAB de varias rutinas. Este método estereológico permite recoger una serie de medidas a partir de las que es posible calcular varios parámetros, tanto estereológicos como geométricos, que han servido de base para calcular los índices mineralúrgicos. Para evaluar la capacidad discriminatoria de los índices mineralúrgicos se han seleccionado 200 casos en los que se puede reconocer de manera clara alguno de los siete tipos de intercrecimiento considerados inicialmente en este trabajo. Para cada uno de estos casos se han calculado los índices mineralúrgicos y se ha aplicado Análisis Discriminante, obteniendo un porcentaje de acierto en la clasificación del 95%. Esta cifra indica que los índices propuestos son discriminadores fiables del tipo de intercrecimiento. Una vez probada la capacidad discriminatoria de los índices, la metodología desarrollada ha sido aplicada para caracterizar una muestra de un concentrado de cobre procedente de la mina Kansanshi (Zambia). Esta caracterización se ha llevado a cabo para obtener la distribución de calcopirita según su tipo de intercrecimiento. La utilidad de esta distribución ha sido analizada bajo diferentes puntos de vista y en todos ellos los índices mineralúrgicos aportan información valiosa para caracterizar el comportamiento mineralúrgico de las partículas minerales. Los resultados derivados tanto del Análisis Discriminante como de la caracterización del concentrado de Kansanshi muestran la fiabilidad, utilidad y versatilidad de la metodología desarrollada, por lo que su integración como herramienta rutinaria en los sistemas actuales de análisis mineralógico pondría a disposición del mineralurgista gran cantidad de información textural complementaria a la información ofrecida por las técnicas actuales de caracterización mineralógica. ABSTRACT Process mineralogy has become in the last decades an essential tool in the mining and metallurgical sphere, especially driven by the emergence of Geometallurgy. This emergent discipline provides required information to efficiently tailor the circuit performance to the mineralogical variability inherent to ore deposits. To contribute to the Geometallurgical model, process mineralogy must provide quantitative data about the main mineralogical features implied in the minerallurgical behaviour of minerals. To address this characterisation, process mineralogy relies on automated systems. These systems are capable of providing a large amount of data quickly and accurately. However, when it comes to the characterisation of texture, mineralogists need to turn to qualitative descriptions based on observation, due to the fact that current systems can not offer quantitative textural information in a routine way. Aiming at the automated characterisation of textural information, this doctoral thesis arises to provide textural information relevant for concentration processes in a systematic way. The main objective of the thesis is the automated identification and characterisation of intergrowth types in mineral particles. Initially, the seven intergrowth types most relevant for flotation, leaching and grinding are considered. To achieve this goal, a methodology has been developed based on the computation of a set of numerical indices, which have been called minerallurgical indices. These indices have been designed with two main purposes: on the one hand, each index provides information to characterise the main mineralogical features which determine particle behaviour during concentration processes and, on the other hand, these indices are used as discriminant variables for identifying the intergrowth type by Discriminant Analysis. Along with the indices developed in this work, three indices proposed by other authors belonging to different fields of materials science have been also considered after being adapted to the analysis of mineral particles. These indices are Contiguity Index (Gurland, 1958), Intergrowth Index (Amstutz and Giger, 1972) and Coordination Index (Jeulin, 1981). The design of minerallurgical indices is based on the fundamental principles of Stereology and Digital Image Analysis. Their computation has been carried out using the linear intercepts method, implemented by means of MATLAB programming. This stereological method provides a set of measurements to obtain several parameters, both stereological and geometric. Based on these parameters, minerallurgical indices have been computed. For the assessment of the discriminant capacity of the developed indices, 200 cases have been selected according to their internal structure, so that one of the seven intergrowth types initially considered in this work can be easily recognised in any of their constituents. Minerallurgical indices have been computed for each case and used as discriminant variables. After applying discriminant analysis, 95% of the cases were correctly classified. This result shows that the proposed indices are reliable identifiers of intergrowth type. Once the discriminant power of the indices has been assessed, the developed methodology has been applied to characterise a copper concentrate sample from the Kansanshi copper mine (Zambia). This characterisation has been carried out to quantify the distribution of chalcopyrite with respect to intergrowth types. Different examples of the application of this distribution have been given to test the usefulness of the method. In all of them, the proposed indices provide valuable information to characterise the minerallurgical behaviour of mineral particles. Results derived from both Discriminant Analysis and the characterisation of the Kansanshi concentrate show the reliability, usefulness and versatility of the developed methodology. Therefore, its integration as a routine tool in current systems of automated mineralogical analysis should make available for minerallurgists a great deal of complementary information to treat the ore more efficiently.

A new approach to change detection in multispectral images by means of ERGAS index

In this letter, we propose a novel method for unsupervised change detection (CD) in multitemporal Erreur Relative Globale Adimensionnelle de Synthese (ERGAS) satellite images by using the relative dimensionless global error in synthesis index locally. In order to obtain the change image, the index is calculated around a pixel neighborhood (3x3 window) processing simultaneously all the spectral bands available. With the objective of finding the binary change masks, six thresholding methods are selected. A comparison between the proposed method and the change vector analysis method is reported. The accuracy CD showed in the experimental results demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed method.

Automated characterisation of intergrowth textures in mineral particles. A case study

The characterisation of mineral texture has been a major concern for process mineralogists, as liberation characteristics of the ores are intimately related to the mineralogical texture. While a great effort has been done to automatically characterise texture in unbroken ores, the characterisation of textural attributes in mineral particles is usually descriptive. However, the quantitative characterisation of texture in mineral particles is essential to improve and predict the performance of minerallurgical processes (i.e. all the processes involved in the liberation and separation of the mineral of interest) and to achieve a more accurate geometallurgical model. Driven by this necessity of achieving a more complete characterisation of textural attributes in mineral particles, a methodology has been recently developed to automatically characterise the type of intergrowth between mineral phases within particles by means of digital image analysis. In this methodology, a set ofminerallurgical indices has been developed to quantify different mineralogical features and to identify the intergrowth pattern by discriminant analysis. The paper shows the application of the methodology to the textural characterisation of chalcopyrite in the rougher concentrate of the Kansanshi copper mine (Zambia). In this sample, the variety of intergrowth patterns of chalcopyrite with the other minerals has been used to illustrate the methodology. The results obtained show that the method identifies the intergrowth type and provides quantitative information to achieve a complete and detailed mineralogical characterisation. Therefore, the use of this methodology as a routinely tool in automated mineralogy would contribute to a better understanding of the ore behaviour during liberation and separation processes.

Brain structures identification based on feature descriptor

Traumatic Brain Injury -TBI- -1- is defined as an acute event that causes certain damage to areas of the brain. TBI may result in a significant impairment of an individuals physical, cognitive and psychosocial functioning. The main consequence of TBI is a dramatic change in the individuals daily life involving a profound disruption of the family, a loss of future income capacity and an increase of lifetime cost. One of the main challenges of TBI Neuroimaging is to develop robust automated image analysis methods to detect signatures of TBI, such as: hyper-intensity areas, changes in image contrast and in brain shape. The final goal of this research is to develop a method to identify the altered brain structures by automatically detecting landmarks on the image where signal changes and to provide comprehensive information to the clinician about them. These landmarks identify injured structures by co-registering the patient?s image with an atlas where landmarks have been previously detected. The research work has been initiated by identifying brain structures on healthy subjects to validate the proposed method. Later, this method will be used to identify modified structures on TBI imaging studies.