Land use management in mountainous areas: combining ground-based and EO (Earth Observation) data to investigate the shallow landsliding susceptibility in the Duron valley (Trento, Italy).

Throughout the alpine domain, shallow landslides represent a serious geologic hazard, often causing severe damages to infrastructures, private properties, natural resources and in the most catastrophic events, threatening human lives. Landslides are a major factor of landscape evolution in mountainous and hilly regions and represent a critical issue for mountainous land management, since they cause loss of pastoral lands. In several alpine contexts, shallow landsliding distribution is strictly connected to the presence and condition of vegetation on the slopes. With the aid of high-resolution satellite images, it's possible to divide automatically the mountainous territory in land cover classes, which contribute with different magnitude to the stability of the slopes. The aim of this research is to combine EO (Earth Observation) land cover maps with ground-based measurements of the land cover properties. In order to achieve this goal, a new procedure has been developed to automatically detect grass mantle degradation patterns from satellite images. Moreover, innovative surveying techniques and instruments are tested to measure in situ the shear strength of grass mantle and the geomechanical and geotechnical properties of these alpine soils. Shallow landsliding distribution is assessed with the aid of physically based models, which use the EO-based map to distribute the resistance parameters across the landscape.

Agricultural Genetics and Plant Breeding in Early Twentieth-Century Italy

This thesis is about plant breeding in Early 20th-Century Italy. The stories of the two most prominent Italian plant-breeders of the time, Nazareno Strampelli and Francesco Todaro, are used to explore a fragment of the often-neglected history of Italian agricultural research. While Italy was not at the forefront of agricultural innovation, research programs aimed at varietal innovation did emerge in the country, along with an early diffusion of Mendelism. Using philosophical as well as historical analysis, plant breeding is analysed throughout this thesis as a process: a sequence of steps that lays on practical skills and theoretical assumptions, acting on various elements of production. Systematic plant-breeding programs in Italy started from small individual efforts, attracting more and more resources until they became a crucial part of the fascist regime's infamous agricultural policy. Hybrid varieties developed in the early 20th century survived World War II and are now ancestors of the varieties that are still cultivated today. Despite this relevance, the history of Italian wheat hybrids is today largely forgotten: this thesis is an effort to re-evaluate a part of it. The research did allow previously unknown or neglected facts to emerge, giving a new perspective on the infamous alliance between plant-breeding programs and the fascist regime. This thesis undertakes an analysis of Italian plant-breeding programs as processes. Those processes had a practical as well as a theoretical side, and involved various elements of production. Although a complete history of Italian plant breeding still remains to be written, the Italian case can now be considered along with the other case-studies that other scholars have developed in the history of plant breeding. The hope is that this historical and philosophical analysis will contribute to the on-going effort to understand the history of plants.

New associations between native parasitoids and exotic insects introduced in Italy and in Europe

The introduction of exotic species is one of the most important threats to biodiversity.This phenomenon may cause economic and environmental damage. To prevent these invasions there are institutions like EPPO. Nevertheless, the introduction of exotic pests is an increasing issue, difficult to control. Classic biological control, based on importation of natural enemies from the country of origin, has been successfully used for over 120 years, but it has also raised some criticism. My research work has focused on the study of the new associations occurring between indigenous parasitoids and three exotic pests introduced in Italy and Europe. The three target insects considered were: Cacyreus marshalli Butler (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), a pest of Geranium plants; Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), a plague of Castanea sp. and Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). This ladybug has been introduced as a biological control agent, but since some years it considered as an invasive species. For C. marshalli I performed laboratory tests on acceptance and suitability of immature stages of this butterfly by Exorista larvarum (Diptera: Tachinidae) and Brachymeria tibialis (Hymenoptera: Chalcidicae). The experiments showed that these two parasitoids could be used to contain this pest. For D. kuriphilus I performed field samplings in an infested chestnut area, the samples were maintained in rearing chamber until gall wasp or parasitoids emergence. In the 3-year research many parasitoids of gall wasps were found; one of these, Torymus flavipes (Walker), was found in large number. For H. axyridis the research work included a first phase of field sampling, during which I searched indigenous parasitoids which had adapted to this new host; the only species found was Dinocampus coccinellae (Schrank) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Laboratory tests were performed on the wasp rearing, biology and capacity to contain H. axyridis.

Agrofood chain analysis: production, commercialisation and consumption of healthy food for population at risk of poverty in Italy

Italy registers a fast increase of low income population. Academics and policy makers consider income inequalities as a key determinant for low or inadequate healthy food consumption. Thus the objective is to understand how to overcome the agrofood chain barriers towards healthy food production, commercialisation and consumption for population at risk of poverty (ROP) in Italy. The study adopts a market oriented food chain approach, focusing the research ambit on ROP consumers, processing industries and retailers. The empirical investigation adopts a qualitative methodology with an explorative approach. The actors are investigated through 4 focus groups for consumers and carrying out 27 face to face semi-structured interviews for industries and retailers’ representatives. The results achieved provide the perceptions of each actor integrated into an overall chain approach. The analysis shows that all agrofood actors lack of an adequate level of knowledge towards healthy food definition. Food industries and retailers also show poor awareness about ROP consumers’ segment. In addition they perceive that the high costs for producing healthy food conflict with the low economic performances expected from ROP consumers’ segment. These aspects induce a scarce interest in investing on commercialisation strategies for healthy food for ROP consumers. Further ROP consumers show other notable barriers to adopt healthy diets caused, among others, by a personal strong negative attitude and lack of motivation. The personal barriers are also negatively influenced by several external socio-economic factors. The solutions to overcome the barriers shall rely on the improvement of the agrofood chain internal relations to identify successful strategies for increasing interest on low cost healthy food. In particular the focus should be on improved collaboration on innovation adoption and marketing strategies, considering ROP consumers’ preferences and needs. An external political intervention is instead necessary to fill the knowledge and regulations’ gaps on healthy food issues.

Characterization of fold-related fractures in the carbonate rocks of the Cingoli anticline, northern Apennines, Italy

Thrust fault-related folds in carbonate rocks are characterized by deformation accommodated by different structures, such as joints, faults, pressure solution seams, and deformation bands. Defining the development of fracture systems related to the folding process is significant both for theoretical and practical purposes. Fracture systems are useful constrains in order to understand the kinematical evolution of the fold. Furthermore, understanding the relationships between folding and fracturing provides a noteworthy contribution for reconstructing the geodynamic and the structural evolution of the studied area. Moreover, as fold-related fractures influence fluid flow through rocks, fracture systems are relevant for energy production (geothermal studies, methane and CO2 , storage and hydrocarbon exploration), environmental and social issues (pollutant distribution, aquifer characterization). The PhD project shows results of a study carried out in a multilayer carbonate anticline characterized by different mechanical properties. The aim of this study is to understand the factors which influence the fracture formation and to define their temporal sequence during the folding process. The studied are is located in the Cingoli anticline (Northern Apennines), which is characterized by a pelagic multilayer characterized by sequences with different mechanical stratigraphies. A multi-scale analysis has been made in several outcrops located in different structural positions. This project shows that the conceptual sketches proposed in literature and the strain distribution models outline well the geometrical orientation of most of the set of fractures observed in the Cingoli anticline. On the other hand, the present work suggests the relevance of the mechanical stratigraphy in particular controlling the type of fractures formed (e.g. pressure solution seams, joints or shear fractures) and their subsequent evolution. Through a multi-scale analysis, and on the basis of the temporal relationship between fracture sets and their orientation respect layering, I also suggest a conceptual model for fracture systems formation.

Labour, LGBT* rights, and Europe. Discourses in Italy and Serbia

At the time of writing, all three elements that are evoked in the title – emancipation and social inclusion of sexual minorities, labour and labour activism, and the idea and substance of “Europe” – are being invested by deep, long-term, and – to varied degrees – radical processes of social transformation. The meaning of words like “equality”, “rights”, “inclusion”, and even “democracy” is as precarious and uncertain as are the lives of those European citizens who are marginalised by intersecting conditions of gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and class – in a constellation of precarities that is both unifying and fragmented (fragmenting). Conflicts are played, in hidden or explicit ways, over material processes of redistribution as well as discursive practices that revolve around these words. Against this backdrop, and roughly ten years after the European Union provided an input for institutional commitment to the protection of LGBT* workers' rights with the Council Directive 2000/78/EC, the dissertation contrasts discourses on workplace equality for LGBT* persons produced by a plurality of actors, seeking to identify values, semantics, and agendas framing and informing organisations’ views and showing how each actor has incorporated LGBT* rights into its own discourse, each time in a way that is functional to the construction and/or confirmation of its organisational identity: transnational union networks, by presenting LGBT* rights as a natural, neutral commitment within the framework of universal human rights protection; left-wing organisations, by collocating activism for LGBT* rights within a wider project of social emancipation that is for all the marginalised, yet is not neutral, but attached to specific values and opposed to specific political adversaries (the right-wing, the nationalists); business networks, by acknowledging diversity as a path to better performance and profits, thus encouraging inclusion and non-discrimination of “deserving” LGBT* workers.

Legal presumptions in national tax systems (Italy and Belgium) and in EU law

The thesis deals with the concept of presumptions, and in particular of legal presumptions, in the context of national tax systems (Italy and Belgium) and EU law. The purpose was to investigate the concept of legal presumption under a twofold comparative perspective. After having provided a general overview of the common core concept of presumption in the European context, an insight in the national approach to legal presumptions was given by examining two different national experiences, namely the Italian and Belgian tax systems. At this stage, the Constitutional framework and some of the most interesting and relevant at EU level presumptive measures were explored, with a view to underlining possible divergences and common grounds. The concept of (national) legal presumption was then investigated in the context of EU law, with the attempt to systematize under a uniform perspective a matter which has been traditionally dealt with either from the merely national point of view or, at EU level, through a fragmented form. In this instance, the EU law relevant framework and the most significant EUCJ case-law, in particular in the field of customs duties, VAT, on the issue of the repayment of taxes levied in breach of EU law and in the area of direct taxation, were examined so as to construe the overall EU approach to national legal presumptions. This was done with the finality of determining if and to what extent a common analytical framework may be identified, from which were extracted certain criteria governing the compatibility of national legal presumptions with EU law.

Landscape ecology and genetics of the wolf in Italy

This PhD Thesis includes five main parts on diverse topics. The first two parts deal with the trophic ecology of wolves in Italy consequently to a recent increase of wild ungulates abundance. Data on wolf diet across time highlighted how wild ungulates are important food resource for wolves in Italy. Increasing wolf population, increasing numbers of wild ungulates and decreasing livestock consume are mitigating wolf-man conflicts in Italy in the near future. In the third part, non-invasive genetic sampling techniques were used to obtain genotypes and genders of about 400 wolves. Thus, wolf packs were genetically reconstructed using diverse population genetic and parentage software. Combining the results on pack structure and genetic relatedness with sampling locations, home ranges of wolf packs and dispersal patterns were identified. These results, particularly important for the conservation management of wolves in Italy, illustrated detailed information that can be retrieved from genetic identification of individuals. In the fourth part, wolf locations were combined with environmental information obtained as GIS-layers. Modern species distribution models (niche models) were applied to infer potential wolf distribution and predation risk. From the resulting distribution maps, information pastures with the highest risk of depredation were derived. This is particularly relevant as it allows identifying those areas under danger of carnivore attack on livestock. Finally, in the fifth part, habitat suitability models were combined with landscape genetic analysis. On one side landscape genetic analyses on the Italian wolves provided new information on the dynamics and connectivity of the population and, on the other side, a profound analysis of the effects that habitat suitability methods had on the parameterization of landscape genetic analyses was carried out to contributed significantly to landscape genetic theory.

Paleosol-based stratigraphy of late Quaternary deposits from the Po basin, between Bologna and the Po river (Northern Italy)

Stratigraphic studies carried out over the last decades in Italy and elsewhere testify a growing interest in Quaternary deposits and in the influence of climate change on their architecture. The subsurface of the Po Plain, in its topmost portion, is made up of alluvial deposits organized in depositional cycles at different scales. This PhD thesis provides millennial-scale stratigraphic reconstruction of the Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits beneath the southern Po Plain, based on basin-scale correlation of laterally-extensive buried soil horizons. Far from the aim of characterizing palaeosols from a mineralogical and geochemical point of view, we focused on the physical and stratigraphic significance of these horizons. In the Bologna urban area, which hosts an abundance of stratigraphic data, the correlation between seventeen continuously-cored boreholes led to the identification of five vertically-stacked palaeosol-bounded sequences within the 14C time window. In a wide portion of the alluvial plain north of Bologna, far away from the Apenninic margin and from the Po River, where subsurface stratigraphic architecture is dominated by markedly lenticular sediment bodies, palaeosols revealed to be the only stratigraphic marker of remarkable lateral continuity. These horizons are characterized by peculiar resistance values, which make them easily identifiable via pocket penetration tests. Palaeosols reveal specific geometric relationships with the associated alluvial facies associations, allowing reliable estimates of soil development as a function of alluvial dynamics. With the aid of sixty new radiocarbon dates, a reliable age attribution and likely time intervals of exposure were assigned to each palaeosol. Vertically-stacked palaeosols delimitate short-term depositional cycles, likely related to the major episodes of climatic change of the last 40 ky. Through integration of stratigraphic data with 750 archaeological reports from the Bologna area, the impact of human settlements on depositional and pedogenic processes during the late Holocene was investigated.

Stream sediments analysis for geochemical mapping of Romagna Apennines (Northern Italy): monitoring and management tool of environmental resources at various scales

Geochemical mapping is a valuable tool for the control of territory that can be used not only in the identification of mineral resources and geological, agricultural and forestry studies but also in the monitoring of natural resources by giving solutions to environmental and economic problems. Stream sediments are widely used in the sampling campaigns carried out by the world's governments and research groups for their characteristics of broad representativeness of rocks and soils, for ease of sampling and for the possibility to conduct very detailed sampling In this context, the environmental role of stream sediments provides a good basis for the implementation of environmental management measures, in fact the composition of river sediments is an important factor in understanding the complex dynamics that develop within catchment basins therefore they represent a critical environmental compartment: they can persistently incorporate pollutants after a process of contamination and release into the biosphere if the environmental conditions change. It is essential to determine whether the concentrations of certain elements, in particular heavy metals, can be the result of natural erosion of rocks containing high concentrations of specific elements or are generated as residues of human activities related to a certain study area. This PhD thesis aims to extract from an extensive database on stream sediments of the Romagna rivers the widest spectrum of informations. The study involved low and high order stream in the mountain and hilly area, but also the sediments of the floodplain area, where intensive agriculture is active. The geochemical signals recorded by the stream sediments will be interpreted in order to reconstruct the natural variability related to bedrock and soil contribution, the effects of the river dynamics, the anomalous sites, and with the calculation of background values be able to evaluate their level of degradation and predict the environmental risk.

"Il carceriere di sé medesimo" di Lodovico Adimari e Alessandro Melani, Firenze 1681. Dalla «comedia» di Pedro Calderón de la Barca al «drama per musica» italiano di fine Seicento

Questo lavoro è imperniato sullo studio di uno dei melodrammi più interessanti della fine del XVII secolo: “Il carceriere di sé medesimo” di Lodovico Adimari (1644-1708) e Alessandro Melani (1639-1703), allestito per la prima volta a Firenze nel 1681, e ripreso nel giro di una ventina d’anni a Reggio (1684), a Bologna (1697) e a Vienna (1702). L’opera vanta un’origine drammatica di spicco: risale infatti alla commedia “Guardarse a sí mismo” di Pedro Calderón de la Barca (1600-1681) mediata dal “Geôlier de soi-mesme” di Thomas Corneille (1625-1709), e presenta qualità poetiche e musicali evidenti, assicurate dai nomi del poeta Lodovico Adimari e del compositore Alessandro Melani. A ciò si aggiungano una tradizione articolata in quattro allestimenti, nonché un elevato numero di testimoni superstiti: cinque edizioni del libretto (testimoniate da numerosi esemplari) e il numero fortunatissimo di tre partiture manoscritte, conservate a Parigi, Bologna e Modena. La tesi contiene l’edizione critica del “Carceriere di sé medesimo” di Adimari con tutte le varianti accumulatesi nella riedizione del libretto e nella copiatura della partitura, l’analisi del dramma, a partire dal confronto tra i testi di Calderón, Corneille e Adimari, e lo studio delle sue componenti drammatiche, formali e contenutistiche. Si aggiunge uno studio sul contesto storico-musicale degli allestimenti di Firenze, Reggio, Bologna e Vienna, nonché l’edizione dei restanti tre drammi di Adimari: la commedia “Le gare dell’amore e dell’amicizia” (1679), e il dramma per musica “L’amante di sua figlia” (1684).

Effect of different management intensities on natural and human-induced carbon fluxes in a golf course in northern Italy

Turfgrasses are ubiquitous in urban landscape and their role on carbon (C) cycle is increasing important also due to the considerable footprint related to their management practices. It is crucial to understand the mechanisms driving the C assimilation potential of these terrestrial ecosystems Several approaches have been proposed to assess C dynamics: micro-meteorological methods, small-chamber enclosure system (SC), chrono-sequence approach and various models. Natural and human-induced variables influence turfgrasses C fluxes. Species composition, environmental conditions, site characteristics, former land use and agronomic management are the most important factors considered in literature driving C sequestration potential. At the same time different approaches seem to influence C budget estimates. In order to study the effect of different management intensities on turfgrass, we estimated net ecosystem exchange (NEE) through a SC approach in a hole of a golf course in the province of Verona (Italy) for one year. The SC approach presented several advantages but also limits related to the measurement frequency, timing and duration overtime, and to the methodological errors connected to the measuring system. Daily CO2 fluxes changed according to the intensity of maintenance, likely due to different inputs and disturbances affecting biogeochemical cycles, combined also to the different leaf area index (LAI). The annual cumulative NEE decreased with the increase of the intensity of management. NEE was related to the seasonality of turfgrass, following temperatures and physiological activity. Generally on the growing season CO2 fluxes towards atmosphere exceeded C sequestered. The cumulative NEE showed a system near to a steady state for C dynamics. In the final part greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions due to fossil fuel consumption for turfgrass upkeep were estimated, pinpointing that turfgrass may result a considerable C source. The C potential of trees and shrubs needs to be considered to obtain a complete budget.

Land use change to perennial energy crops in Northern Italy: Effects on soil organic carbon sequestration and distribution, soil enzyme activities and microbial communities.

Studies on soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration in perennial energy crops are available for North-Central Europe, while there is insufficient information for Southern Europe. This research was conducted in the Po Valley, a Mediterranean-temperate zone characterised by low SOC levels, due to intensive management. The aim was to assess the factors influencing SOC sequestration and its distribution through depth and within soil fractions, after a 9-year old conversion from two annual systems to Miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus) and giant reed (Arundo donax). The 13C natural abundance was used to evaluate the amount of SOC in annual and perennial species, and determine the percentage of carbon derived from perennial crops. SOC was significantly higher under perennial species, especially in the topsoil (0-0.15 m). After 9 years, the amount of C derived from Miscanthus was 18.7 Mg ha-1, mostly stored at 0-0.15 m, whereas the amount of C derived from giant reed was 34.7 Mg ha-1, evenly distributed through layers. Physical soil fractionation was combined with 13C abundance analysis. C derived from perennial crops was mainly found in macroaggregates. Under giant reed, more newly derived-carbon was stored in microaggregates and mineral fraction than under Miscanthus. A molecular approach based on denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) allowed to evaluate changes on microbial community, after the introduction of perennial crops. Functional aspects were investigated by determining relevant soil enzymes (β-glucosidase, urease, alkaline phosphatase). Perennial crops positively stimulated these enzymes, especially in the topsoil. DGGE profiles revealed that community richness was higher in perennial crops; Shannon index of diversity was influenced only by depth. In conclusion, Miscanthus and giant reed represent a sustainable choice for the recovery of soils exhausted by intensive management, also in Mediterranean conditions and this is relevant mainly because this geographical area is notoriously characterised by a rapid turnover of SOC.

Granulite facies metamorphism and partial melting processes in the Ivrea Zone, Northern Italy

The Ivrea Zone in northern Italy has been the focus of numerous petrological, geochemical and structural studies. It is commonly inferred to represent an almost complete section through the mid to lower continental crust, in which metamorphism and partial melting of the abundant metapelites was the result of magmatic underplating by a large volume of mantle-derived magma. This study concerns amphibolite and granulite facies metamorphism in the Ivrea Zone with focus on metapelites and metapsammites/metagreywackes from Val Strona di Omegna and metapelites from Val Sesia and Val Strona di Postua, with the aim to better constrain their metamorphic evolution as well as their pressure and temperature conditions via phase equilibria modelling.rnrnIn Val Strona di Omegna, the metapelites show a structural and mineralogical change from mica-schists with the common assemblage bi-mu-sill-pl-q-ilm ± liq at the lowest grades, through metatexitic migmatites (g-sill-bi-ksp-pl-q-ilm-liq) at intermediate grades, to complex diatexitic migmatites (g-sill-ru-bi-ksp-pl-q-ilm-liq) at the highest grades. Within this section several mappable isograds occur, including the first appearance of K-feldspar in the metapelites, the first appearance of orthopyroxene in the metabasites and the disappearance of prograde biotite from the metapelites. The inferred onset of partial melting in the metapelites occurs around Massiola. The prograde suprasolidus evolution of the metapelites is consistent with melting via the breakdown of first muscovite then biotite. Maximum modelled melt fractions of 30–40 % are predicted at the highest grade. The regional metamorphic field gradient in Val Strona di Omegna is constrained to range from conditions of 3.5–6.5 kbar at T = 650–730 °C to P > 9 kbar at T > 900 °C. The peak P–T estimates, particularly for granulite facies conditions, are significantly higher (around 100 °C) than those of most previous studies. In Val Sesia and Val Strona di Postua to the south the exposure is more restricted. P–T estimates for the metapelites are 750–850 °C and 5–6.5 kbar in Val Sesia and approximately 800–900 °C and 5.5–7 kbar in Val Strona di Postua. These results show similar temperatures but lower pressure than metapelites in Val Strona di Omegna. Metapelites in Val Sesia in contact with the Mafic Complex exhibit a metatexitic structure, while in Val Strona di Postua diatexitic structures occur. Further, metapelites at the contact with the Mafic Complex contain cordierite (± spinel) that overprint the regional metamorphic assemblages and are interpreted to have formed during contact metamorphism related to intrusion of the Mafic Complex. The lower pressures in the high-grade rocks in Val Sesia and Val Strona di Postua are consistent with some decompression from the regional metamorphic peak prior to the intrusion of the Mafic Complex, suggesting the rocks followed a clockwise P–T path. In contrast, the metapelites in Val Strona di Omegna, especially in the granulite facies, do not contain any cordierite or any evidence for a contact metamorphic overprint. The extrapolated granulite facies mineral isograds are cut by the rocks of the Mafic Complex to the south. Therefore, the Mafic Complex cannot have caused the regional metamorphism and it is unlikely that the Mafic Complex occurs in Val Strona di Omegna.

Characterization of West Nile virus strains isolated in Italy

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that is maintained in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds, but can also infect and cause disease in humans and other vertebrate species. Most of WNV infections in humans are asymptomatic, but approximately 20% of infected people develop clinical symptoms, although severe neurological diseases are observed in less than 1% of them. WNV is the most widely distributed arbovirus in the world and has been recently associated with outbreaks of meningo-encephalitis in Europe, including Italy, caused by different viral strains belonging to distinct lineages 1 and 2. The hypothesis is that genetic divergence among viral strains currently circulating in Italy might reflect on their pathogenic potential and that the rapid spread of WNV with increased pathogenicity within naïve population suggest that epidemic forms of the virus may encode mechanisms to evade host immunity. Infection with WNV triggers a delayed host response that includes a delay in the production of interferon-α (IFN-α). IFNs are a family of immuno-modulatory cytokines that are produced in response to virus infection and serve as integral signal initiators of host intracellular defenses. The increased number of human cases and the lack of data about virulence of European WNV isolates highlight the importance to achieve a better knowledge on this emerging viral infection. In the present study, we investigate the phenotypic and IFN-α-regulatory properties of different WNV lineage 1 and 2 strains that are circulating in Europe/Italy in two cell lines: Vero and 1321N1. We demonstrate that: Vero and 1321N1 cells are capable of supporting WNV replication where different WNV strains show similar growth kinetics; WNV lineage 2 strain replicated in Vero and 1321N1 cells as efficiently as WNV lineage 1 strains; and both lineages 1 and 2 were highly susceptible to the antiviral actions of IFN-α.